Industry is a branch of production covering the processing of raw materials, the development of subsoil, the creation of means of production and consumer goods. This is the main branch of the sphere of material production. Industry produces: means of production, consumer goods, processes agricultural raw materials, ensures the operation of all sectors of the economy, determines the country's defense power, and ensures scientific and technological progress.
An industry is a set of organizations, enterprises, institutions that produce homogeneous goods and services, use the same type of technology that satisfies needs that are similar in nature.
Classification of industries - a duly approved list of industries that provides comparability of indicators for planning, accounting and analysis of industrial development.
There are several classifications:
The division of industry into groups A and B: industry of group A (means of production), industry of group B (consumer goods).
The division of the industry into heavy and light.
According to the nature of the impact on the object, the industry is divided into two groups: mining (extraction and preparation of raw materials) and manufacturing (processing of raw materials and production finished products).
Industry classification: electric power industry, fuel industry, ferrous metallurgy, non-ferrous metallurgy, chemical industry, machine building and metalworking, timber industry, building materials industry, light industry, food industry.
The sectoral structure of industry characterizes the level of industrial and technical development of the country, the degree of its economic independence and the level of productivity of social labor.
When analyzing sectoral structure industry, it is expedient to consider not only its individual branches, but also groups of branches, which are intersectoral complexes.
The industrial complex is understood as a set of certain groups of industries, which are characterized by the release of similar (related) products or the performance of works (services).
Currently, industries are combined into the following complexes: fuel and energy, metallurgical, chemical, timber, machine-building, agro-industrial, construction, military-industrial (sometimes isolated separately).
The fuel and energy complex (FEC) includes the fuel industry (coal, gas, oil, shale industries) and the electric power industry (hydropower, thermal, nuclear, etc.). All these sectors are united by a common goal - to meet the needs of the national economy in fuel, heat, and electricity.
The metallurgical complex (MC) is an integrated system of ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy industries.
The machine-building complex is a combination of machine-building, metalworking and repair industries. The leading branches of the complex are general mechanical engineering, electrical engineering and radio electronics, transport engineering, as well as the production of computers.
The chemical complex is an integrated system of the chemical and petrochemical industries.
The timber industry complex is an integrated system of the timber, woodworking, pulp and paper and wood chemical industries.
The agro-industrial complex (AIC) can be considered as a set of technologically and economically connected links of the national economy, the end result of which is the most complete satisfaction of the population's needs for food and non-food products produced from agricultural raw materials. Includes agriculture (plant growing, animal husbandry), as well as light and food industries.
The building complex includes a system of construction industries, building materials industry.
The military-industrial complex (MIC) is represented by industries and activities (primarily R&D) focused on meeting the needs of the Armed Forces.
The following consolidated industries were distinguished in OKONKh:
Power industry
Fuel industry
Ferrous metallurgy
Non-ferrous metallurgy
Chemical and petrochemical industry
Mechanical engineering and metalworking
Forestry, woodworking and pulp and paper industry
Building materials industry
Glass and porcelain industry
Light industry
food industry
Microbiological industry
Flour-grinding and feed industry
Medical industry
Printing industry.
economic indicator of the process of processing raw materials into a product suitable for human use, using specially designed equipment
Information on industrial production, types and forms of organization of industrial production, world industrial production and the industrial production index, the relationship of the industrial production index with other indicators
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Industrial production is, the definition
A complex technological process, which consists of production and technological units engaged in the production of parts, components, semi-finished products using specially designed industrial equipment, from raw materials, as well as the subsequent assembly and sale of finished products that meet market needs from manufactured elements.
Industrial production is processing of raw materials into a form suitable for human consumption.
Industrial production is the basis of the Russian economy
Industrial production is the most complex mechanism, which includes both the actual production and technological divisions that produce semi-finished products, parts, components, assembly units from raw materials and materials, and then assemble finished products from these elements, as well as a large number of auxiliary divisions, which are often combined under a single name production infrastructure.
Industrial production is production, during which raw materials, basic materials or semi-finished products are converted into a finished product using industrial equipment.
Industrial production as a market indicator
Industrial production is a process in which people, being in certain production relations, using tools and objects of labor, create the products of industrial and personal consumption necessary for society. Industrial production is divided into main, auxiliary, service. Basic industrial production - a set of production processes in the course of which raw materials, basic materials or semi-finished products are converted into a finished product. Auxiliary industrial production - a set of production processes associated with the manufacture of tools, fixtures, dies, etc. Servicing industrial production - the implementation of intra-factory transportation and storage operations of all kinds.
Industrial production is the stage of the innovation process following the stage of mastering new equipment (technologies). In production, knowledge materializes, and research finds its logical conclusion.
Industrial production in the Russian economy
Industrial production is production (manufacturing) of goods, using specially designed industrial equipment, in serial and mass quantities, with the aim of their further sale and profit.
Industrial production is the Fed's statistical report G.17, containing an indicator of changes in the total volume of industrial production by enterprises in the country. Includes an indicator of the degree of utilization of production capacities.
Estimates and prospects of industrial production in Russia
Industrial production is a complex process of converting raw materials, semi-finished materials and other objects of labor into finished products that meet the needs of the market.
Industrial production is activities related to the release of products, which includes all stages of the technological process, as well as the sale of products own production.
Postscript on industrial production
Production and stages of its development
Production is a human-controlled process of creating products (products, energy, services). Production involves the use of factors of production (labor, technical means, materials, energy, various services). It requires compliance with technical conditions and rules, as well as taking into account social and ethical norms. The theory of production as a branch of the science of the national economy and economics of the enterprise studies the functional relationship between the costs of production factors and output.
The process of production of tangible and intangible benefits is the basis for the development of an economic entity, in particular, and the nation as a whole.
Industrial production in Russia
Production is the starting point for the creation of tangible and intangible goods. But the initial one is only within the framework of the obvious truth that in order to live, a person must eat, drink, have a dwelling, etc. In a market economy, however, production will be carried out only when the sphere of exchange gives the producer an appropriate price signal. Goods created in the process of production complete their movement in consumption. But it is important to emphasize that consumption is the direct goal of production only in non-market economic systems. Both in the primitive community, and in the slave-owning society, and under feudalism, consumption is the goal of production.
However, in the system of a market economy, the main goal is not consumption, but profit from production activities.
There are three stages of production development: pre-industrial, industrial and post-industrial.
Industrial production in China
Pre-industrial stage of development of production
The pre-industrial stage of production is characterized by the following:
The predominant role in the economy is occupied by agriculture;
Most of the population is engaged in agriculture and cattle breeding;
Predominant in all areas of activity manual labor;
The main form of labor organization is subsistence farming;
The underdevelopment of the social division of labor.
The industrial revolution of the late 18th - early 19th centuries. led to the transition of production to the industrial stage.
Industrial stage of industrial production
The industrial stage of production is characterized by the following features:
The predominant role in the economy is played by industrial production with the massive use of technological machines and equipment;
The bulk of the able-bodied population is employed in the industrial branches of production;
Activation of the process of social division of labor;
Accelerating the rate of urbanization of the population.
The scientific and technological revolution that took place in the middle of the 20th century led to the transition of production to the post-industrial stage.
Post-industrial stage of production development
The post-industrial stage has the following features:
The predominant role in the economy is occupied by the service sector, which employs most of the population;
Science occupies a central place in the system of productive forces;
On the basis of high technologies, the production of goods that did not previously exist in nature is mastered;
Mass information and automation of all branches of the national economy.
Types of industrial production
Type of production - a classification category of production, distinguished on the basis of the breadth of the range, regularity, stability of the volume of output of products, the type of equipment used, qualifications of personnel, labor intensity of operations and the duration of the production cycle. Usually distinguish between single, serial and mass production.
Single production
Single production is characterized by a wide range of products and a small volume of production of identical products. Patterns either do not repeat or repeat irregularly. Jobs do not have deep specialization. Single production is characterized by the presence of a significant work in progress, the lack of assignment of operations to workplaces, the use of unique equipment, frequent reconfiguration of equipment, high qualification of workers, a significant share of manual operations, overall high labor intensity of products and a long cycle of their manufacture, high cost of products. A diverse range of products makes unit production more mobile and adaptable to fluctuating demand for finished products.
Single production is typical for machine tool building, shipbuilding, production of large hydraulic turbines, rolling mills and other unique equipment.
Mass production
Serial production is characterized by the production of a limited range of products. Batches (series) of products are repeated at regular intervals. Depending on the size of the series, small-batch, medium-batch and large-batch production is distinguished.
In serial production, it is possible to specialize individual workplaces for performing similar technological operations. The level of production costs is reduced due to the specialization of jobs, the widespread use of labor of semi-skilled workers, the efficient use of equipment and production space, and the reduction in wage costs compared to unit production.
Series products are standard products, such as machines of a steady type, usually produced in larger quantities (metal-cutting machines, pumps, compressors, equipment for the chemical and food industries).
Mass production
Mass production is characterized by the production of certain types of products in large quantities at highly specialized workplaces over an extended period. Mechanization and automation of mass production can significantly reduce the share of manual labor. Mass production is characterized by an unchanged range of manufactured products, specialization of jobs in the performance of one permanently fixed operation, the use of special equipment, low labor intensity and duration of the production process, high automation and mechanization.
The cost of mass-produced products is minimal compared to single-unit and mass-produced products. This type of production is economically feasible with a sufficiently large volume of output. A necessary condition for mass production is the presence of a stable and significant demand for products. In the context of the economic crisis, mass production becomes the most vulnerable.
Forms of organization of industrial production
A distinctive feature of industrial production enterprises is not only a high technical level of development, but also constantly developing forms of organization that have a great impact on both the economy and location.
The main forms of industrial production organization are: specialization, cooperation, concentration and combination.
Specialization of industrial production
Specialization is a form of organization of production, in which there is a separation and separation of industries, enterprises, organizations focused on the production of a certain type of product or part of it, as well as on the performance of a separate technological operation. Allocate subject, detailed, technological (stage) specialization.
Subject specialization is specialization in the production of a certain type of finished product (tractor plant).
Detailed specialization is specialization in the production of part of the product of individual parts (motor, bearing plant).
Technological specialization is specialization in the performance of a specific production operation (foundry).
The level of specialization is the higher, the narrower the range j of manufactured products, the less the enterprise performs technological operations. Increasing the specialization of production requires the use of high-performance equipment; introduction of new methods of technology, mechanization and automation of production processes; raising the level of staff qualifications and increasing labor productivity - this reduces the cost while improving quality, which leads to increased sales, increased profits and profitability.
Cooperation of industrial production
Successful development of specialization is impossible without cooperation. Cooperation is understood as close production ties between individual industries or enterprises jointly involved in the manufacture of a specific finished product.
Cooperation contributes to a better use of the production capabilities of each enterprise, increases labor productivity, and reduces the cost of production. Industrial cooperation requires the standardization of technological processes and certain types of products supplied. Standardization ensures the production of products with strictly defined properties, quality and size, ensures the interchangeability of parts and assemblies. Enterprises are required to produce products in strict accordance with approved standards (GOST).
Standardization is inextricably linked with the unification of products. Unification means the use in the production of machines and other products of the same type of parts, assemblies, homogeneous grades of materials.
Reducing the number of used types and sizes of parts, assemblies, mechanisms simplifies and reduces the cost of designing machines, their production and operation.
Concentration of industrial production
An important form of industrial production organization is the concentration of production.
Concentration is the concentration of means of production, labor, and, consequently, output in large enterprises.
The market economy is characterized by a combination of enterprises of various sizes. The presence of large, medium and small enterprises in the economy ensures the greatest production efficiency. Using modern technology, the right specialization and cooperation, they are cost-effective.
Combined industrial production
Combination is the highest form of industrial organization. When organizing production, enterprises producing various types of products are combined into one enterprise - a combine. There are three types of combination:
Based on successive stages of processing raw materials (textile, metallurgical plants);
Based on the use of production waste (production of cement from blast-furnace slag);
Based on the complex processing of raw materials or fuel (extraction of several metals, oil, fuel oil, gasoline, diesel fuel from the same ores).
Combination as a form of organization of production is widespread in the chemical, woodworking, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy industries. The combination reduces capital costs for the construction of enterprises, reduces transportation costs for the transportation of raw materials, fuel, speeds up production processes, reduces labor costs, ensures growth in labor productivity and reduces the cost of production.
Industrial production index
The industrial production index, abbreviated as IPP, is an indicator of the dynamics of the volume of industrial production, its rise or fall, is determined as the ratio of the current volume of production in monetary terms to the volume of industrial production in the previous or other base year. Determined by selecting representative products characterized as the most important species industrial products.
The index shows fluctuations in the volume of production in the mining and manufacturing industries, and in the sector utilities(not including the construction sector).
The index of industrial production has a direct impact on the indicators of economic growth. The growth of this indicator contributes to the growth of the national currency and has a fairly large impact on the market.
The growth of this index means the strengthening of the economy as a whole.
At the same time, the Capacity Utilization indicator is calculated, which means the ratio of the total output to the potential value. This indicator is of no small importance for the foreign exchange market, due to its close connection with the dynamics of the business cycle, with the help of which it, in difficult moments of waiting for changes in the policy of central banks, becomes for the market another benchmark that suggests possible future actions of the Central Bank.
This data is based on workbook entries, which correspond to the number of hours worked by workers in the industrial sector. The total US industrial production for each month is expressed as a percentage of gross production compared to the previous year;
Mining;
Manufacturing industries;
Production and distribution of electricity, gas and water.
That is, this index characterizes the change in GDP due to fundamental sectors of the economy.
Companies representing fundamental industries form the basis of the capitalization of all stock market RF. Such companies include: Gazprom, Lukoil, RusHydro, the largest machine-building manufacturers, and so on. Rising IPP indicates an increase in production, which, in turn, increases profits, which can be expressed in the rising value of shares of companies associated with industrial production.
With a decrease in the IPI, the reverse process will not necessarily occur, since inflation increases the revenue and profits of producers even if real production does not grow. Consider a hypothetical situation that could arise in May 2010.
These indicators can be interpreted as follows:
For the first 4 months of 2010, 25% of the goods and services accepted for calculation were produced more than for the first 4 months of 2009;
At the same time, in April 2010 it was produced 15% more than in April 2009;
However, in April 2010 it was produced 23% less than in March of the same year.
If we compare this information with changes in GDP over the same periods, we can conclude how the volume of production in fundamental industries has changed relative to all other sectors of production and services. That is, if the IPP grows faster than GDP, then this indicates a faster pace of development of fundamental industries. In a situation where the IPP lags behind GDP growth, the reverse trend is observed.
This is a purely hypothetical situation, but nevertheless, it allows you to understand what the industrial production index (IPI) is.
Brokers and forex traders consider IPCU an important tool in assessing future performance, assets in the market. The report may at times cause an increase in sales or purchases as an influence in certain industries and the Forex market.
Industrial production makes up approximately 40% of the US economy. There is a fairly high correlation between the level of production and the value of GDP. The advantage of this indicator is that it measures output rather than monetary terms.
Changes in GDP may be more concentrated in this sector of the economy.
Thus, IPCU provides information that suggests the possible course of upcoming inflation.
The index is expressed by the Federal Reserve System (Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System) as a percentage of the state of 1992.
As a rule, its change in relation to the previous month is published in the media.
The report is released at 09:15 am Washington DC or 17:15 Moscow time, usually on the 15th month following the reporting period by the Federal Reserve Board's research department for the previous month.
Relationship with other economic indicators
The indicator depends on the level of capacity utilization (Capacity Utilization), industrial orders in the previous month (Durable Goods Orders, Factory Orders), for a longer period, business activity indices are used to predict the level of production, in particular, the index of optimism of industrial sector managers (NAPM Index) . Growth in production usually leads to an increase in labor costs and, accordingly, a fall in unemployment (Unemployment rate), as well as an increase in the index of industrial production has a positive effect on company income, GDP, and stock indices. The indicator has a significant impact on the market. The growth of this indicator leads to an increase in the exchange rate of the national currency.
Features of the indicator behavior
Fluctuations in the index of industrial production are markedly correlated with fluctuations in the business cycle with strong gains during the recovery period. During the downturn, industrial production declines 0.8% m/m on average, with a normal range of -1.3 to 0.3%. During the recovery phase, production tends to increase by 0.9% per month and then the growth rate is set at 0.4% during the expansion phase. Since employment hours directly account for about one-third of the industrial production index and indirectly reflect monthly business conditions, using the employment report data can help predict the industrial production index.
Industrial production of the world in 2006-2013
Update on world industrial production data for the past two months, February and March. Canada has been added to the general list.
Kazakhstan set its own record (151% as of March 2005). History shows that the surge is seasonal, but looking ahead, I will say that in April (the data is already available) the level was preserved. So you can be happy for your partners in the TS. The main contribution to the growth was made by the gas sector and concrete production.
Because of China, we again had to change the maximum value along the axes. The new record is 238% from March 2005.
Returned data for Italy, last time they were not available. However, they did not show anything new. After a surge in January, the country continued to move down as part of the trend.
Germany and Brazil switched again. Both countries show a decline in industrial production (this is clearly visible on the trend chart), but the rate of decline varies from month to month.
Ukraine rolled back to 2009 levels. More than 5% drop per year.
But in March, Russia managed to turn the winter decline into growth.
Top 20 countries by industrial production
List of countries in the world with data on industrial production
China - industrial production volume
USA - industrial production
Japan - industrial output
India - industrial production
Russia - industrial production volume
Germany - industrial output
Mexico - industrial output
South Korea - industrial output
Brazil - industrial output
Indonesia - industrial output
Italy - industrial production volume
United Kingdom - industrial output
Iran - industrial output
France - industrial output
Turkey - industrial production volume
Thailand - industrial production
Egypt - industrial output
Nigeria - industrial production
Pakistan - industrial output
Philippines - industrial production
Countries with high rates of production growth
List of countries in the world with industrial production growth data
Azerbaijan - growth of industrial production
Angola - growth of industrial production
Sudan - growth of industrial production
Slovakia - industrial production growth
Cambodia - industrial production growth
Bulgaria - industrial production growth
China - growth of industrial production
Georgia - growth of industrial production
Rwanda - industrial production growth
Uzbekistan - growth of industrial production
Laos - growth of industrial production
Lesotho - industrial production growth
Chile - Industrial production growth
Ethiopia - industrial production growth
Romania - industrial production growth
Vietnam - industrial production growth
Panama - industrial production growth
Turkmenistan - growth of industrial production
Equatorial Guinea - growth in industrial production
Mozambique - industrial production growth
Industrial production and environment
The 20th century brought a lot of benefits to mankind associated with the rapid development of scientific and technological progress, and at the same time put life on Earth on the brink of an ecological catastrophe. Population growth, intensification of production and emissions that pollute the Earth, lead to fundamental changes in nature and are reflected in the very existence of man. Some of these changes are extremely strong and so widespread that global environmental problems arise. There are serious problems of pollution (atmosphere, water, soil), acid rain, radiation damage to the territory, as well as the loss of certain plant species and living organisms, the impoverishment of bioresources, deforestation and desertification of territories.
Problems arise as a result of such an interaction between nature and man, in which the anthropogenic load on the territory (it is determined through the technogenic load and population density) exceeds the ecological capabilities of this territory, due mainly to its natural resource potential and the overall stability of natural landscapes (complexes, geosystems) to anthropogenic influences.
General trends in the development of production
The main sources of atmospheric air pollution in our country are machines and installations using sulfur-containing coals, oil, and gas.
Automobile transport, thermal power plants, enterprises of ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, oil and gas processing, chemical and timber industries significantly pollute the atmosphere. A large number of harmful substances It enters the atmosphere with the exhaust gases of cars, and their share in air pollution is constantly growing.
With the growth of industrial production, its industrialization, environmental protection measures based on MPC standards and their derivatives become insufficient to reduce already formed pollution. Therefore, it is natural to turn to the search for aggregated characteristics, which, reflecting the real state of the environment, would help to choose the environmentally and economically optimal option, and in polluted (disturbed) conditions, determine the order of restoration and recreational activities.
With the transition to the path of intensive development of the economy, an important role is assigned to the system of economic indicators, endowed with the most important functions of economic activity: planning, accounting, evaluation, control and stimulation. Like any systemic formation, which is not an arbitrary collection, but interconnected elements in a certain integrity, economic indicators are designed to express the final result, taking into account all phases of the reproduction process.
One of the important reasons for the increase in the nature intensity of the economy was the depreciation of equipment exceeding all permissible standards. In the basic industries and transport, wear and tear of equipment, including cleaning equipment, reaches 70-80%. In the context of the continued operation of such equipment, the likelihood of environmental disasters increases sharply.
Typical in this regard was the accident of an oil pipeline in the Arctic region of Komi near Usinsk. As a result, according to various estimates, up to 100,000 tons of oil spilled onto the fragile ecosystems of the North. This environmental disaster became one of the largest in the world in the 90s, and it was caused by the extreme deterioration of the pipeline. The accident received worldwide publicity, although according to some Russian experts, it is one of many - they just managed to hide others. For example, in the same region of Komi in 1992, according to the interdepartmental commission on environmental safety, there were 890 accidents.
The economic damage of ecological catastrophes is colossal. The funds saved as a result of preventing accidents could over the course of several years reconstruct the fuel and energy complex and significantly reduce the energy intensity of the entire economy.
The damage caused to nature in the production and consumption of products is the result of irrational nature management. There was an objective need to establish relationships between the results of economic activity and indicators of the environmental friendliness of manufactured products, the technology of their production. This, in accordance with the law, requires additional costs from labor collectives, which must be taken into account when planning. At the enterprise, it is advisable to distinguish between the costs of protection environment associated with the production of products and with bringing the product to a certain level of environmental quality, or replacing it with another, more environmentally friendly.
There is a relationship between product quality and environmental quality: the higher the quality of the product (taking into account the environmental assessment of the use of waste and the results of environmental activities in the production process), the higher the quality of the environment.
How can the needs of society for the proper quality of the environment be met? Overcoming negative impacts with the help of a reasonable system of norms and standards, with the linkage of the calculation methods of MPE, MPD and environmental protection measures; reasonable (complex, economical) use natural resources, corresponding to the ecological features of a certain territory; environmental orientation of economic activity, planning and justification of management decisions, expressed in progressive directions of interaction between nature and society, environmental certification of jobs, technology of products.
Attempts are being made on the basis of a single methodological approach, the calculation of private and generalizing indicators to express the relationship of natural and cost characteristics in making an economically feasible and environmentally conditioned (acceptable) decision. The priority of natural parameters and indicators meets the needs of the resource supply of social production. Cost indicators should reflect the effectiveness of efforts to reduce (or increase) the technogenic load on nature. With their help, the calculation of environmental damage is carried out and the effectiveness of measures to stabilize the nature management regime is evaluated.
It must be said that in addition to this, measures such as:
Ensuring the organization of the production of new, more advanced equipment and apparatus for cleaning industrial emissions into the atmosphere from harmful gases, dust, soot and other substances;
Carrying out relevant scientific research and development work to create more advanced equipment and equipment for the protection of atmospheric air from pollution by industrial emissions;
Installation and commissioning of gas-cleaning and dust-collecting equipment and apparatus at enterprises and organizations;
Implementation of state control over the operation of gas-cleaning and dust-collecting installations at industrial enterprises.
Natural-industrial systems, depending on the accepted qualitative and quantitative parameters of technological processes, differ from each other in structure, functioning and nature of interaction with the natural environment. In fact, even natural-industrial systems that are identical in terms of qualitative and quantitative parameters of technological processes differ from each other in the uniqueness of environmental conditions, which leads to various interactions between production and its natural environment. Therefore, the subject of research in engineering ecology is the interaction of technological and natural processes in natural-industrial systems.
Energy and environmental protection
The development of modern production, and, above all, industry, is based largely on the use of fossil raw materials. Among the individual types of fossil resources, one of the first places in terms of national economic importance should be placed on sources of fuel and electricity.
A feature of energy production is the direct impact on the natural environment in the process of extracting fuel and burning it, and the ongoing changes in natural components are very clear.
The time when nature seemed inexhaustible has passed. Terrible symptoms of destructive human activity manifested themselves with particular force a couple of decades ago, causing an energy crisis in some countries. It became clear that energy resources are limited. This also applies to all other minerals.
The situation is easily projected on providing the country with electricity. The question arises: how to compensate for retired capacities - to repair and reconstruct old or build new power plants? The conducted studies have shown that simple replacement of equipment and extension of the service life of power units is not the cheapest way. Experts came to the conclusion that the most profitable is the modernization and reconstruction of existing power plants and boiler houses through the introduction of modern gas turbine and combined cycle plants with higher efficiency.
According to experts, given the current rate of GDP growth, the situation in the energy sector will sharply worsen in the near future. At the same time, already now about half of the energy capacities require replacement. A significant part of thermal power plants in terms of their technical characteristics does not meet the current needs of energy consumption.
Saving fuel and energy resources
As technological progress increases, primary sources of electricity obtained from hydro- and geothermal power plants acquire an increasing share. The production of electricity from nuclear power plants is also growing. The potential capacities of all these sources are large, but so far only a small part of them is economically viable.
One of characteristic features modern stage of scientific and technological progress is the growing demand for all types of energy. An important fuel and energy resource is natural gas. The cost of its extraction and transportation is lower than for solid fuels. Being an excellent fuel (its calorie content is 10% higher than fuel oil, 1.5 times higher than coal and 2.5 times higher than artificial gas), it is also distinguished by high heat transfer in various installations. The gas is used in furnaces requiring precise temperature control; it produces little waste and smoke polluting the air. The widespread use of natural gas in metallurgy, in the production of cement and in other industries has made it possible to raise the work of industrial enterprises to a higher technical level and increase the volume of products obtained per unit area of technological installations, as well as improve the ecology of the region.
Saving fuel and energy resources is currently becoming one of the most important areas for transferring the economy to the path of intensive development and rational environmental management. However, there are significant opportunities for saving mineral fuel and energy resources when using energy resources. Thus, at the stage of enrichment and transformation of energy resources, up to 3% of energy is lost. Currently, almost all electricity in the country is produced by thermal power plants. Therefore, the question of the use of non-traditional energy sources is increasingly being put on the agenda.
At TPPs, only 30-40% of thermal energy is usefully used in the generation of electricity, the rest is dissipated in the environment with flue gases heated by water. Of no small importance in saving mineral fuel and energy resources is the reduction in the specific fuel consumption for electricity generation.
Thus, the main directions of saving energy resources are: improving technological processes, improving equipment, reducing direct losses of fuel and energy resources, structural changes in production technology, structural changes in products, improving the quality of fuel and energy, organizational and technical measures. Carrying out these activities is caused not only by the need to save energy resources, but also by the importance of taking into account environmental issues when solving energy problems.
Of great importance is the replacement of fossil fuels with other sources (solar energy, wave energy, tide energy, earth energy, wind energy). These sources of energy resources are environmentally friendly. By replacing fossil fuels with them, we reduce the harmful impact on nature and save organic energy resources. Experts in the field of energy consider the development of energy- and resource-saving technologies and the implementation of an energy-saving program to be the most promising.
The expansion of the use of local fuel resources, such as oil, associated gas, brown coal, peat, wood, and animal waste, will partially reduce the supply of fuel from abroad. But calculations show that the planned measures for energy saving, maximum use of local fuel resources and non-traditional energy sources will be able to increase the provision of own fuel only up to 38-40%.
The main reason for the significant deterioration of the environmental situation is the lack of a sustainable mechanism that takes into account the level of excess of MAC and MAC. This affects the economy of sources that pollute the environment, as well as the basic (starting) environmental and economic standards that determine the types of economic, moral punishment or encouragement.
One of the fundamental assumptions in the formation of environmental and economic standards is the definition of "proportions" between the possible directions for the use of natural resources within the boundaries of a particular territory.
The calculation of standards should be carried out taking into account the following provisions:
For each natural complex, there is a certain value of the maximum allowable anthropogenic load, which does not violate natural processes, and its effect can be compensated by self-recovery processes;
When the anthropogenic load is higher than the permissible value, but not exceeding the limit level specific for each natural system, disturbances in the natural state of this system caused by the action of the anthropogenic factor can be eliminated as a result of eliminating the load and carrying out environmental protection measures;
If the anthropogenic load on the natural environment has exceeded the limit level, then processes of irreversible degradation develop.
At the current level of development of production forces, almost all territorial elements and components of the environment are involved in the turnover, so they are negatively affected by pollutants and physical factors. Therefore, it is advisable to revise the existing technological processes that damage the environment.
Sources and links
Sources of texts, pictures and videos
en.wikipedia.org - a resource with articles on many topics, the free encyclopedia Wikipedia
dic.academic.ru - dictionaries and encyclopedias on Academician
vertiforex.ru - VertiFX Limited website
forum.garant.ru - information and legal portal Garant
mirslovarei.com - online portal World of Dictionaries
fxeuroclub.ru - site about trading in the forex market
freshforex.ru - Internet portal for traders
red-sovet.su - information portal Red Councils
yourlib.net - electronic online library
rudiplom.ru - portal with educational materials
bibliofond.ru - electronic library with educational materials
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Analyzing the fuel and energy balance for a certain historical period, it should be noted that the world's fuel industry has gone through several stages in its development:
- coal stage (first half of the 20th century);
- oil and gas stage (since the second half of the 20th century).
Oil production in the world in 1950 - 2000 increased almost 7 times (from 0.5 to 3.5 billion tons). The oil industry is one of the most monopolized extractive industries. Apart from a few countries where oil production is run by state-owned companies, the industry is fully controlled by the largest TNCs and Western European countries. To counterbalance them, the oil exporters created an organization that fights for the right to dispose of oil on its territory and controls over half of its production.
Before the 2nd World War, 80% of the oil was produced by Severnaya. and , where the USA stood out (over half of the world's production) and . But after the war, with the discovery of large oil fields in the Near and Middle East, as well as in the USSR, America's share began to decline rapidly (21% in 2000). The main part of the oil now gives (up to 38%). The shares of individual leading countries in production in 2000 (USA or ) do not exceed 12 - 13%. USSR in the late 80s. reached the maximum level of oil production among all oil-producing countries - 624 million tons (20% of world production), which no country has surpassed.
Oil is one of the most important export commodities of world trade. Half of all oil produced (over 1.5 billion tons) is exported. Its most important suppliers are the countries of the Near and Middle East. The vast majority of exported oil is transported in tankers by sea. The largest flow through pipelines goes from Russia to many countries of Western and Eastern Europe. And although the share of oil has decreased slightly, it remains in first place in terms of global energy consumption.
Natural gas industry
Natural gas production in the second half of the 20th century. increased 11 times (from 0.2 to 2.3 trillion m3). This allowed him to approach in the structure of consumption of primary energy sources to (about 24%). At the same time, in terms of explored resources (almost 150 billion tons or 145 trillion m3), natural gas is comparable to oil. To this should be added the resources of associated petroleum gas associated with oil fields.
By 1990, Vostochnaya became the leader in production, with the leading role of the USSR. There has been significant gas production in Western Europe and Asia. The result was a change in the geography of the world. The USA lost its monopoly position, and their share decreased to 1/4, and the USSR became the leader (now it has retained its leadership). Russia and the US concentrate half of the natural gas produced in the world. Russia remains stable, the world's largest gas exporter.
coal industry
Oil industry
Gas industry
Gas is produced by 60 countries, Russia, the USA are in the lead,.
The main problems of the fuel industry are:
- depletion of fuel reserves (according to experts, explored reserves of coal will last for about 240 years, oil - for 50 years, gas - 65);
- violation of the environment during the extraction and transportation of fuel;
- territorial gap between the main areas of production and areas of consumption.
To solve these problems, new resource-saving technologies are being developed, and new deposits are being searched for.
Electric power industry of the world
Share of various types of plants in energy production in different countries is not the same, so TPPs prevail in the Netherlands, Poland, South Africa, China, Mexico, Italy. A significant proportion of hydroelectric power plants in Norway, Brazil, Canada,. In the late 80s, nuclear power plants were actively built and operated. During this period they were built in 30 countries of the world. A significant share of energy at nuclear power plants is generated in France, the Republic of Korea, Sweden,.
The main problems of the electric power industry are:
- depletion of primary energy resources and their rise in price;
- environmental pollution.
The solution to the problem is in the use of energy, such as:
- geothermal (already used in Iceland, Italy, France, Japan, USA);
- solar (, Spain, Japan, USA);
- (France, Russia, China, jointly Canada and the USA);
- ( , Sweden, Germany, Great Britain, the Netherlands).
Metallurgical industry of the world: composition, location, problems.
Metallurgy- one of the main basic industries, providing other industries with structural materials (ferrous and non-ferrous metals).
For quite a long time, the size of metal smelting almost in the first place determined the economic power of any country. And all over the world they are growing rapidly. But in the 70s of the XX century, the growth rate of metallurgy slowed down. But steel remains the main structural material in.
Metallurgy includes all processes from ore mining to the production of finished products. The metallurgical industry includes two branches: ferrous and non-ferrous.
of the world: meaning, composition, placement features, environmental problems.
Chemical industry is one of the avant-garde industries that ensure the development of the economy in the era of scientific and technological revolution. The development of the entire economy depends on its development, since it provides other industries with new materials - mineral fertilizers and plant protection products, and the population - with a variety of household chemicals.
The chemical industry has a complex sectoral composition. It includes:
- mining (extraction of raw materials: sulfur, apatite, phosphorites, salts);
- basic chemistry (production of salts, acids, alkalis, mineral fertilizers);
- chemistry of organic synthesis (production of polymers - plastics, synthetic rubber, chemical fibers);
- other industries ( household chemicals, perfumery, microbiological, etc.).
- Accommodation features are determined by a combination of various factors.
For mining and chemical - a natural resource factor determining, for basic and organic synthesis chemistry - consumer, water and energy.
There are 4 major regions:
- Foreign Europe (Germany is in the lead);
- North America (USA);
- East and Southeast Asia (Japan, China, Newly Industrialized Countries);
- CIS (Russia, Ukraine, ).
The following countries are leading in the production of certain types of chemical products:
- in the production of sulfuric acid - USA, Russia, China;
- in the production of mineral fertilizers - USA, China, Russia;
- in the production of plastics - USA, Japan, Germany;
- in the production of chemical fibers - USA, Japan, ;
- in the production of synthetic rubber - USA, Japan, France.
The chemical industry has a significant impact on nature. On the one hand, the chemical industry has a wide raw material base, which makes it possible to dispose of waste and actively use secondary raw materials, which contributes to a more economical use of natural resources. In addition, it creates substances that are used to chemical cleaning water, air, plant protection, restoration.
On the other hand, it is itself one of the most "dirty" industries, affecting all components natural environment which requires regular environmental protection measures.
The chemical industry is a type of industry in which the processing of raw materials by chemical methods is of key importance. The main materials used in this industry are various mineral raw materials and oil. The role of the chemical industry in the modern world is very great. Thanks to it, people can use various plastic and plastic products, as well as other products of oil refining. In addition, the industry provides explosives, fertilizers for agricultural needs, medications etc.
Development
The beginning of the history of this industry is considered to be the industrial revolution, which took place at the beginning of the 17th century. Until the 16th century, the "science of substances" generally developed very slowly, but as soon as people learned how to apply this knowledge in industry, much changed. The very first product of the chemical industry was sulfuric acid, which still remains an extremely important substance and is used in many areas of human activity. At that time, this compound was mainly used in the processing of metal ores needed for the industrial revolution in large quantities. The first enterprises for the production of sulfuric acid were created in England, France and Russia.
The second stage in the development of this area was the need for mass production of soda ash. This substance was necessary to ensure the production of glass and fabrics.
At the first stage, England made the biggest contribution to the development of the industry. With the increasing interest in organic chemistry, the development of this science was increasingly influenced by Germany, whose scientists are still considered one of the most the best specialists in this domain. At the beginning of the 20th century, most of the chemical production was located in this country, which, according to some analysts, provided German leaders with confidence in victory in World War I due to the high quality of explosives and advanced research on chemical weapons. By the way, it was German troops who used military poison gas for the first time.
Branches of the chemical industry
Now both inorganic and organic chemistry are relevant, many discoveries are made every year in these areas. The most promising developments are:
- Oil refining.
- Creation of medicines.
- Creation of fertilizers.
- Creation of polymers and plastics.
- The study of the conductive properties of substances.
Scientists have been working on the creation of an ideal conductor for several decades. If successful, humanity will be able to use the planet's resources much more efficiently.
Chemical industry in Russia
Petrochemistry
Petrochemistry is a key branch of the chemical industry in Russia. This is largely due to the extremely important role of the oil refining industry in the country's economy. Educational institutions annually graduate tens of thousands of petrochemical specialists. The state also allocates a lot of money to sponsor research in this area.
The annual sales volume of all petrochemical industries is more than 500 billion rubles.
Ammonia production
Togliattiazot is one of the leading ammonia producers in the world. Since recently, the company has been producing more than 3 million tons of gas per year, which is an exceptionally high figure. According to experts, the share of this company in the world production of ammonia is from 8 to 10%, the company is also engaged in the production of mineral fertilizers and occupies about 20% of the Russian market in this sector.
Fertilizer production
An important part of the industry is the production of fertilizers. On the territory of Russia there are very large deposits of raw materials for this industry. The production of resources to create chemical fertilizers is also well developed. In Soviet times, the best scientists worked to improve the efficiency of fertilizers, who made many fundamental discoveries in this area. Thanks to this, Russia is one of the most important exporters of fertilizers.
Pharmaceutical industry
The production of medicines and their components is a very promising area. Currently, this industry does not cover Russian needs, and the creation of many drugs has not even been established. Therefore, every year foreign investors, including large chemical concerns, invest in the development of this industry. Nevertheless, a significant increase in production volumes and product quality, according to analysts, will occur at best in ten years.
Chemical industry in the world
The most developed chemical industry is in Germany, Great Britain and the USA. That is, among European countries, the most advanced are usually the states that have made a certain contribution to the development of chemistry as a science. In the case of the United States, this is due to favorable conditions for the development of chemistry and pharmacology: a good economic environment, the availability of large raw materials and a developed transport system, and the luring of the best specialists from other countries.
In particular, there are 2 companies from Germany, 2 from Great Britain and one from the USA in the top five concerns with the highest profit.
Section 1. History of industrial development.
Section 2. Classification industry.
Section 3. Industries industry.
- Subsection 1. Power industry.
- Subsection 2. Fuel industry.
- Subsection 4. Color metallurgy.
- Subsection 5. Chemical and petrochemical industry.
- Subsection 6. Mechanical engineering and metalworking.
- Subsection 7. Forestry, woodworking and pulp and paper industry.
- Subsection 8 Building materials industry.
- Subsection 9. Light industry.
- Subsection 10. Glass and porcelain industry
- Subsection 11. Food industry.
Industry- a set of enterprises engaged in the production of tools, extraction of raw materials, materials. Energy production and further processing of products obtained in industry or produced in agriculture - the production of consumer goods.
Industry is the most important industry national economy, which has a decisive influence on the level of development of the productive forces of society.
History of industrial development
Industry was born within the natural household peasant economy. In the era of the primitive communal system, the main industries production activities among most peoples (agriculture and cattle breeding), when products intended for their own consumption were made from raw materials obtained in the same economy. The development and direction of the domestic industry was determined by local conditions, and depended on the availability of raw materials:
skin processing;
leather dressing;
felt production;
various types of processing of tree bark and wood;
weaving various items of trade (ropes, vessels, baskets, nets);
spinning;
weaving;
pottery production.
For the medieval economic regime, it is traditional to combine peasant household crafts with patriarchal (natural) agriculture, which is an integral part of the pre-capitalist mode of production, including the feudal one. Wherein trade item left the boundaries of the peasant economy only in the form of quitrent in kind to the landowner, and domestic industry was gradually replaced by small-scale manual production of industrial trade items, however, not completely displaced by the latter. Thus, the craft played an important economic role in the states of the era of feudalism.
Generation of electrical energy
The generation of electricity is process conversion of various types of energy into electrical energy at industrial facilities called power stations. Currently, there are the following types of generation:
Thermal power industry. In this case, the thermal energy of combustion of organic fuels is converted into electrical energy. The thermal power industry includes thermal power plants (TPPs), which are of two main types:
Condensing (CPP, the old abbreviation GRES is also used);
Cogeneration (thermal power plants, thermal power plants). Cogeneration is the combined generation of electrical and thermal energy at the same station;
IES and EC have similar technological processes. In both cases, there is a boiler in which fuel is burned and, due to the heat released, steam is heated under pressure. Next, the heated steam is fed into a steam turbine, where its thermal energy is converted into rotational energy. The turbine shaft rotates the rotor of the electric generator - thus, the rotational energy is converted into electrical energy, which is fed into the network. The fundamental difference between CHP and IES is that part of the steam heated in the boiler goes to heat supply needs;
Nuclear energy. It includes nuclear power plants (NPPs). In practice, nuclear power is often considered a subspecies of thermal power, since, in general, the principle of generating electricity at nuclear power plants is the same as at thermal power plants. Only in this case, thermal energy is released not during the combustion of fuel, but during the fission of atomic nuclei in a nuclear reactor. Further, the scheme for the production of electricity does not fundamentally differ from a thermal power plant: steam is heated in a reactor, enters a steam turbine, etc. Due to some design features, nuclear power plants are unprofitable to use in combined generation, although separate experiments in this direction were carried out;
Hydropower. It includes hydroelectric power plants. In hydropower, the kinetic energy of water flow is converted into electrical energy. To do this, with the help of dams on the rivers, a difference in the levels of the water surface is artificially created. Water under the action of gravity overflows from the upper pool through special channels in which water turbines are located, the blades of which are spun by the water flow. The turbine rotates the rotor of the generator. a special variety hydroelectric power station are pumped storage stations (PSPP). They cannot be considered pure generating capacity, as they consume almost as much electricity as they generate, but such stations are very effective in offloading the network during peak hours.
Recently, studies have shown that the power of sea currents exceeds the power of all the world's rivers by many orders of magnitude. In this regard, the creation of experimental offshore hydroelectric power plants is underway.
Alternative energy. It includes methods for generating electricity that have a number of advantages compared to the "traditional" ones, but for various reasons have not received sufficient distribution. The main types of alternative energy are:
Wind energy - the use of the kinetic energy of the wind to generate electricity;
Solar energy - obtaining electrical energy from the energy of sunlight;
Also, in both cases, storage capacities are required for night (for solar energy) and calm (for wind energy) time;
Geothermal energy is the use of the natural heat of the Earth to generate electrical energy. In fact, geothermal stations are ordinary thermal power plants, where the heat source for heating steam is not a boiler or a nuclear reactor, but underground sources of natural heat. The disadvantage of such stations is the geographical limitations of their application: it is cost-effective to build geothermal stations only in regions of tectonic activity, that is, where natural heat sources are most accessible;
Hydrogen energy - the use of hydrogen as an energy fuel has great prospects: hydrogen has a very high combustion efficiency, its resource is practically unlimited, hydrogen combustion is absolutely environmentally friendly (the product of combustion in an oxygen atmosphere is distilled water). However, hydrogen energy is currently not able to fully meet the needs of mankind due to the high cost of producing pure hydrogen and the technical problems of transporting it in large quantities. In fact, hydrogen is just a carrier of energy, and in no way removes the problem of extracting this energy.
Tidal energy uses the energy of sea tides. The spread of this type of electric power industry is hampered by the need for the coincidence of too many factors in the design of a power plant: not just a sea coast is needed, but a coast on which the tides would be strong and constant enough. For example, the Black Sea coast is not suitable for the construction of tidal power plants, since the water level drops in the Black Sea at high and low tide are minimal.
Wave energy, upon careful consideration, may turn out to be the most promising. Waves are concentrated energy of the same solar radiation and wind. Wave power in different places can exceed 100 kW per linear meter of the wave front. There is excitement almost always, even in calm ("dead swell"). In the Black Sea, the average wave power is about 15 kW/m. Northern seas of the Russian Federation - up to 100 kW/m. The use of waves can provide energy for sea and coastal settlements. Waves can set ships in motion. The average rolling power of the vessel is several times higher than the power of its power plant. But so far, wave power plants have not gone beyond single prototypes.
The transmission of electrical energy from power stations to consumers is carried out through electric networks. Elektra grid economy is a natural monopoly sector of the electric power industry: the purchaser can choose from whom to buy electricity.
Power lines are a metal conductor through which passes electricity. At present, alternating current is used almost everywhere. The power supply in the vast majority of cases is three-phase, so the power line, as a rule, consists of three phases, each of which can include several wires. Structurally, power lines are divided into overhead and cable.
Overhead lines are suspended above the ground at a safe height on special structures called supports. As a rule, the wire on the overhead line has no surface insulation; insulation is available at the points of attachment to the supports.
The main advantage of overhead power lines is their relative cheapness compared to cable ones. Also, maintainability is much better: no excavation is required. work to replace the wire, the visual state of the line is not hindered by anything. However, overhead power lines have a number of disadvantages:
wide right-of-way: it is forbidden to erect any structures and plant trees in the vicinity of power lines; when the line passes through the forest, the trees along the entire width of the right-of-way are cut down;
aesthetic unattractiveness; this is one of the reasons for the almost universal transition to cable transmission in urban areas.
Usually transformer oil in liquid form, or oiled paper, acts as an insulator. The conductive core of the cable is usually protected by steel armor.
Fuel industry
The fuel and energy complex (FEC) is a complex system that includes a set of industries, processes, material devices for the extraction of fuel and energy resources (FER), their transformation, transportation, distribution and consumption of both primary FER and converted types of energy carriers. It includes:
oil industry;
coal industry;
gas industry;
electric power industry.
The fuel industry is the basis for the development of the Russian economy, a tool for conducting internal and foreign policy. The fuel industry is connected with the entire industry of the country. More than 20% is spent on its development Money accounts for 30% of fixed assets and 30% cost industrial products of the Russian Federation.
Implementation of the state politicians in the fuel industry is carried out by the Ministry of Energy of Russia and its subordinate companies, including the Russian Energy Agency.
Fuel industry. Main Suppliers energy carriers are located in Asia (the countries of the Persian Gulf, as well as China).
Not all countries have their own energy resources suppliers leading in terms of economic potential are quite adequately provided with them only USA, Russia, China, UK, Australia. A fairly large group of countries partially covers the needs with their own fuel, for example, the Federal Republic of Germany, Ukraine, Poland, India, etc. But there are many industrialized countries and those that practically do not have their own energy resources. These are Japan, Sweden, the Republic of Korea, not to mention the small industrialized countries of the world.
The leading branch of energy is the oil industry. For a long time in the second half of the XX century. economy Europe, USA and Japan developed due to cheap black gold, whose production in developing countries was controlled by oil transnational corporations. But after its formation in 1960 Firms exporting countries black gold(OPEC), which took over production and sale black gold into their own hands, the era of "cheap black gold" has passed, the oil monopolists had to share profits. In addition, mining conditions have become more difficult. Oil companies operate in less developed areas, a significant part of the black gold is mined offshore, often at great depths. Political instability and conflicts, especially in the Middle East, also add to the problems in the oil business.
Industry (Industry) is
The woodworking industry is a branch of the timber industry. Using various timber products, the woodworking industry carries out mechanical and chemical-mechanical processing and processing of wood.
Pulp and paper production - technological process, aimed at obtaining pulp, paper, cardboard and other related products of the final or intermediate processing.
Paper was first mentioned in Chinese chronicles in 12 BC. e. The raw materials for its manufacture were bamboo stalks and mulberry tree bast. In 105, Lun generalized and improved the existing methods for obtaining paper.
Paper appeared in Europe in the 11th-12th centuries. She replaced papyrus and parchment (which was too expensive). At first, crushed hemp and linen rags were used to make paper.
As early as 1719, Réaumur suggested that wood could serve as a raw material for paper production. However, the need to use wood arose only at the beginning of the 19th century, when the paper machine was invented, which dramatically increased productivity, as a result of which paper mills began to experience a shortage of raw materials.
In 1853, Mellier (France) patented a method for obtaining cellulose from straw by cooking with a 3% solution of sodium hydroxide in hermetically sealed boilers at a temperature of about 150 ° (soda pulp). Almost simultaneously, Watt (England) and Barges (USA) took out patents for the production of pulp in a similar way from wood. The first plant for the production of soda pulp was built in 1860 in the United States of America.
In 1866, B. Tilgman (USA) invented the sulfite method for the production of cellulose.
In 1879, K. F. Dahl (Sweden), having modified the soda pulp, invented the sulfate method for the production of cellulose, which to this day is the main method for its production.
Since production requires wood and a lot of water, pulp and paper mills are usually located on the banks of large rivers, then it becomes possible to use the rivers to melt wood, which serves as the main raw material for production.
Production of a special type of paper
The following fibrous semi-finished products are used to obtain paper and cardboard (data for 2000):
waste paper - 43%
sulfate cellulose - 36%
wood pulp - 12%
sulfite cellulose - 3%
semi-cellulose - 3%
cellulose from non-wood vegetable raw materials - 3%
For the manufacture of higher grades of paper, on which money and important documents are printed, shredded scraps of textiles are also used.
In addition, sizing agents, mineral fillers and special dyes are added to the paper to give special properties.
Industry (Industry) is
building materials industry
Building materials - materials for the construction of buildings and structures. Along with the "old" traditional materials like wood and brick, with the beginning of the industrial revolution, new building materials appeared like concrete, steel, glass and plastic. Currently, prestressed reinforced concrete and metal-layers are widely used.
Distinguish:
Natural stone materials;
woody Construction Materials and subject of trade;
Artificial firing materials;
metals and metal trade items;
Glass and glass trade items;
Decoration Materials;
polymeric materials;
Thermal insulation materials and trade items from them;
Waterproofing and roofing materials based on bitumen and polymers;
Portland cement;
Hydration (inorganic) binders;
In the process of construction, operation and repair of buildings and structures, the building objects of trade and the structures from which they are erected are subjected to various physical, mechanical, physical and technological influences. The civil engineer is required to competently choose the right material, trade item, has sufficient resistance, reliability and durability for specific conditions.
Building materials and trade items used in the construction, reconstruction and repair of various buildings and structures are divided into
natural
artificial
which fall into two main categories:
They are used in the construction of various elements of buildings (walls, ceilings, coatings, floors).
waterproofing, heat-insulating, acoustic, etc.
The main types of building materials and trade items
stone natural building materials and articles of trade from them
binders, inorganic and organic
timber products and articles of trade from them
metal trade items.
Depending on the purpose, conditions of construction and operation of buildings and structures, appropriate building materials are selected that have certain qualities and protective properties from exposure to various external environments. Given these features, any building material must have certain construction and technical properties. For example, the material for the outer walls of buildings should have the lowest thermal conductivity with sufficient strength to protect the room from the outside cold; the material of the construction for irrigation and drainage purposes - water tightness and resistance to alternate moistening and drying; pavement material (asphalt, concrete) must have sufficient strength and low ejectibility to withstand traffic loads.
When classifying materials and trade items, it must be remembered that they must have good properties and qualities.
Property - a characteristic of a material that manifests itself in the process of its processing, application or operation.
Quality is a set of material properties that determine its ability to meet certain requirements in accordance with its purpose.
The properties of building materials and trade items are classified into four main groups:
physical,
mechanical,
chemical,
technological, etc.
Physical properties of building materials.
The true density ρ is the mass of a unit volume of a material in an absolutely dense state. ρ =m/Va, where Va is the volume in the dense state. [ρ] = g/cm³; kg/mі; t/m. For example, granite, glass and other silicates are almost completely dense materials. Determination of true density: a pre-dried sample is ground into powder, the volume is determined in a pycnometer (it is equal to the volume of the displaced liquid).
The average density ρm=m/Ve is the mass per unit volume in the natural state. The average density depends on temperature and humidity: ρm=ρw/(1+W), where W is the relative humidity and ρw is the wet density.
Bulk density (for bulk materials) - the mass per unit volume of loosely poured granular or fibrous materials.
Open porosity - the pores communicate with the environment and among themselves, are filled with water under normal conditions of saturation (immersion in a bath of water). Open pores increase the permeability and water absorption of the material, reduce frost resistance.
Closed porosity Pz=P-Po. An increase in closed porosity increases the durability of the material, reduces sound absorption.
The porous material contains both open and closed pores.
Hydrophysical properties of building materials.
Water absorption by mass Wm (%) is determined in relation to the mass of dry material Wm=(mv-mc)/mc*100. Wo=Wm*γ, γ is the volumetric mass of dry material, expressed in relation to the density of water (dimensionless value). Water absorption is used to evaluate the structure of the material using the saturation coefficient: kн = Wo/P. It can vary from 0 (all pores in the material are closed) to 1 (all pores are open). A decrease in kn indicates an increase in frost resistance.
Water permeability is the property of a material to let water through under pressure. Filtration coefficient kf (m/h is the dimension of velocity) characterizes the water permeability: kf=Vv*a/, where kf=Vv is the amount of water, mі, passing through a wall with area S = 1 m², thickness a = 1 m during the time t = 1h with a difference in hydrostatic pressure at the boundaries of the wall p1 - p2 = 1 m of water. Art.
The water resistance of the material is characterized by the W2 brand; W4; W8; W10; W12, denoting the one-sided hydrostatic pressure in kgf/cm², at which the concrete sample-cylinder does not pass water under the conditions of a standard test. The lower kf, the higher the water resistance mark.
Water resistance is characterized by the softening coefficient kp = Rb/Rc, where Rb is the strength of the material saturated with water, and Rc is the strength of the dry material. kp varies from 0 (soaking clays) to 1 (metals). If kp is less than 0.8, then such material is not used in building structures that are in water.
Hygroscopicity is the property of a capillary-porous material to absorb water vapor from the air. absorption of moisture from the air is called sorption, it is due to the polymolecular adsorption of water vapor on inner surface pores and capillary condensation. With an increase in the pressure of water vapor (that is, an increase in the relative humidity of the air at a constant temperature), the sorption moisture content of the material increases.
Capillary suction is characterized by the height of the rise of water in the material, the amount of water absorbed and the intensity of suction. A decrease in these indicators reflects an improvement in the structure of the material and an increase in its frost resistance.
Humidity deformations. Porous materials change their volume and dimensions with changes in humidity. Shrinkage - reduction in the size of the material when it dries. Swelling occurs when the material is saturated with water.
Thermophysical properties of building materials.
Thermal conductivity is the property of a material to transfer heat from one surface to another. The Nekrasov formula relates the thermal conductivity λ [W / (m * C)] with the volumetric mass of the material, expressed in relation to water: λ \u003d 1.16√ (0.0196 + 0.22γ2) -0.16. As the temperature rises, the thermal conductivity of most materials increases. R is thermal resistance, R = 1/λ.
Heat capacity c [kcal / (kg * C)] - the amount of heat that needs to be reported to 1 kg of material in order to increase its temperature by 1C. For stone materials, the heat capacity varies from 0.75 to 0.92 kJ / (kg * C). With an increase in humidity, the heat capacity of materials increases.
Fire resistance - the property of a material to withstand prolonged exposure to high temperatures (from 1580 ° C and above), without softening or deforming. Refractory materials are used for internal lining industrial furnaces. Refractory materials soften at temperatures above 1350 °C.
Fire resistance - the property of a material to resist the action of fire during a fire for a certain time. It depends on the combustibility of the material, that is, on its ability to ignite and burn. Fireproof materials - concrete, brick, etc. But at temperatures above 600 ° C, some fireproof materials crack (granite) or severely deform (metals). Difficult-to-combustible materials smolder under the influence of fire or high temperature, but after the fire stops, their burning and smoldering stops (asphalt concrete, wood impregnated with flame retardants, fiberboard, some foam plastics). Combustible materials burn with an open flame, they must be protected from fire by constructive and other measures, treated with flame retardants.
Linear thermal expansion. With a seasonal change in the temperature of the environment and material by 50 °C, the relative temperature deformation reaches 0.5-1 mm/m. To avoid cracking, structures of great length are cut with expansion joints.
Frost resistance of building materials.
Frost resistance - the property of a material saturated with water to withstand alternate freezing and thawing. Frost resistance is quantified by the brand. The mark is taken as the largest number of cycles of alternate freezing to -20 °C and thawing at a temperature of 12-20 °C, which the material samples can withstand without a decrease in compressive strength of more than 15%; after the test, the samples should not have visible damage - cracks.
Mechanical properties of building materials
Elasticity - spontaneous restoration of the original shape and size after the termination of the external force.
Plasticity is the property of changing shape and size under the influence of external forces without collapsing, and after the termination of the action of external forces, the body cannot spontaneously restore shape and size.
Permanent deformation - plastic deformation.
Relative deformation - the ratio of absolute deformation to the initial linear size (ε=Δl/l).
The modulus of elasticity is the ratio of stress to rel. strain (E=σ/ε).
Brick, concrete, the main strength characteristic is the compressive strength. For metals, steel - the compressive strength is the same as in tension and bending. Since building materials are heterogeneous, the tensile strength is determined as the average result of a series of samples. The test results are influenced by the shape, dimensions of the samples, the state of the supporting surfaces, and the speed of awarding. Depending on the strength of the materials are divided into grades and classes. Grades are written in kgf / cm², and classes - in MPa. The class characterizes guaranteed strength. Strength class B is the tensile strength of standard specimens (concrete cubes with a rib size of 150 mm) tested at the age of 28 days of storage at a temperature of 20 ± 2 °C, taking into account the static variability of strength.
Structural quality factor: KKK=R/γ(strength to relative density), for 3rd steel KKK=51 MPa, for high-strength steel KKK=127 MPa, heavy concrete KKK=12.6 MPa, wood KKK=200 MPa.
Hardness is an indicator that characterizes the property of materials to resist the penetration of another, denser material into it. Hardness index: HB=P/F (F is the imprint area, P is the force), [HB]=MPa. Mohs scale: talc, gypsum, lime...diamond.
Abrasion is the loss of the initial mass of the sample when this sample passes through a certain path of the abrasive surface. Abrasion: I=(m1-m2)/F, where F is the area of the abraded surface.
Wear is the property of a material to resist both abrasion and impact loads. Wear determined in a drum with or without steel balls.
As natural stone materials in construction, rocks are used that have the necessary building properties.
By geological classification rocks divided into three types:
magmatic (primary).
sedimentary (secondary).
metamorphic (modified).
Igneous (primary) rocks formed when molten magma that rose from the depths of the earth cooled. The structures and properties of igneous rocks largely depend on the cooling conditions of the magma, and therefore these rocks are divided into deep and erupted.
Deep rocks were formed during the slow cooling of magma in the depths of the earth's crust at high pressures of the overlying layers of the earth, which contributed to the formation of rocks with a dense granular-crystalline structure, high and medium density, and high compressive strength. These rocks have low water absorption and high frost resistance. These rocks include granite, syenite, diorite, gabbro, etc.
The erupted rocks were formed in the process of magma coming to the earth's surface during relatively fast and uneven cooling. The most common outflowing rocks are porphyry, diabase, basalt, and loose volcanic rocks.
Sedimentary (secondary) rocks were formed from primary (igneous) rocks under the influence of temperature changes, solar radiation, the action of water, atmospheric gases, etc. In this regard, sedimentary rocks are divided into clastic (loose), chemical and organogenic.
Clastic loose rocks include gravel, crushed stone, clay.
Chemical sedimentary rocks: limestone, dolomite, gypsum.
Organogenic rocks: shell limestone, diatomite, chalk.
Metamorphic (modified) rocks were formed from igneous and sedimentary rocks under the influence of high temperatures and pressures in the process of raising and lowering the earth's crust. These include shale, marble, quartzite.
Natural stone materials and trade items are obtained by processing rocks.
According to the method of obtaining stone materials are divided into:
ragged stone (but) - mined in an explosive way
rough-cut stone - obtained by splitting without processing
crushed - obtained by crushing (crushed stone, artificial sand)
sorted stone (cobblestone, gravel).
Stone materials are divided by shape
irregularly shaped stones (crushed stone, gravel)
piece trade items that have the correct shape (plates, blocks).
Crushed stone - acute-angled pieces of rocks ranging in size from 5 to 70 mm, obtained by mechanical or natural crushing of buta (torn stone) or natural stones. It is used as a coarse aggregate for the preparation of concrete mixes, foundations.
Gravel - rounded pieces of rocks ranging in size from 5 to 120 mm, also used for the preparation of artificial gravel-crushed stone mixtures.
Sand is a mixture of rock grains ranging in size from 0.14 to 5 mm. It is usually formed as a result of weathering of rocks, but can also be obtained artificially - by crushing gravel, crushed stone, and pieces of rocks.
Mortars are carefully fine-grained mixtures consisting of an inorganic binder (cement, lime, gypsum, clay), fine aggregate (sand, crushed slag), water and, if necessary, additives (inorganic or organic). In a freshly prepared state, they can be laid on the base in a thin layer, filling all its irregularities. They do not exfoliate, seize, harden and gain strength, turning into a stone-like material.
Mortars are used in masonry, finishing, repair and other works. They are classified according to their average density: heavy with an average ρ = 1500 kg / m³, light with an average ρ
Solutions prepared on one type of binder are called simple, mixed from several binders.
For the preparation of mortars, it is better to use sand with grains that have a rough surface. protects the solution from cracking during hardening, reduces its price.
Waterproofing solutions (waterproof) - cement mortars with a composition of 1: 1 - 1: 3.5 (usually fatty), to which sodium aluminate, calcium nitrate, chloride, bitumen emulsion are added.
For the manufacture of waterproofing solutions, Portland cement, sulfate-resistant Portland cement, is used. Sand is used as a fine aggregate in waterproofing solutions.
Masonry mortars - used when laying stone walls, underground structures. They are cement-lime, cement-clay, lime and cement.
Finishing (plaster) mortars - are divided according to their purpose into external and internal, according to their location in the plaster into preparatory and finishing.
Acoustic mortars are light mortars with good sound insulation. These solutions are prepared from Portland cement, Portland slag cement, lime, gypsum, and other binders using light porous materials (pumice, perlite, expanded clay, slag) as fillers.
Glass is a supercooled melt of complex composition from a mixture of silicates and other substances. Molded glass products subjected to special heat treatment - firing.
Window glass is produced in sheets up to 3210×6000 mm in size. Glass, in accordance with its optical distortions and normalized defects, is divided into grades M0-M7.
Showcase glass is produced polished and unpolished in the form of flat sheets 2-12 mm thick. It is used for glazing shop windows and openings. In the future, glass sheets can be subjected to further processing: bending, tempering, coating.
Highly reflective sheet glass is an ordinary window glass, on the surface of which a thin translucent reflective film made on the basis of titanium oxide is applied. Glass with a film reflects up to 40% of the incident light, light transmission is 50-50%. Glass reduces the view from the outside and reduces the penetration of solar radiation into the room.
Radioprotective sheet glass is an ordinary window glass, on the surface of which a thin transparent shielding film is applied. The screening film is applied to the glass during its formation on machines. Light transmission is not less than 70%.
Reinforced glass is produced on production lines by the method of continuous rolling with simultaneous rolling inside a sheet of metal mesh. This glass has a smooth, patterned surface and can be colorless or colored.
Heat-absorbing glass has the ability to absorb infrared rays from the solar spectrum. It is intended for glazing window openings in order to reduce the penetration of solar radiation into the premises. This glass transmits visible light rays by at least 65%, infrared rays by no more than 35%.
Glass pipes are made from ordinary transparent glass by vertical or horizontal stretching. Pipe length 1000-3000 mm, inner diameter 38-200 mm. Pipes withstand hydraulic pressure up to 2 MPa.
According to the conditions of hardening - they are divided:
item of trade, hardening during autoclaving and heat treatment
subject of trade, hardening in an air-humid environment.
Prepared from a homogeneous mixture of mineral binder, silica component, gypsum and water.
During the exposure of the product before autoclaving, hydrogen is released from it, as a result of which tiny bubbles form in a homogeneous plastic-viscous binder medium. In the process of gas release, these bubbles increase in size, creating spheroidal cells in the entire mass of the cellular concrete mix.
During autoclave treatment under a pressure of 0.8-1.2 MPa in a highly humid air-steam environment at 175-200 ° C, an intensive interaction of the binder with silica components occurs with the formation of calcium silicate and other cementing neoplasms, due to which the structure of cellular highly porous concrete acquires strength.
Single-row cut panels, wall and large blocks, single-layer and double-layer wall hinged panels, single-layer slabs of interfloor and attic floors are made from cellular concrete.
Silicate brick is molded on special presses from a carefully prepared homogeneous mixture of pure quartz sand (92-95%), air lime (5-8%) and water (7-8%). After pressing, the brick is steamed in autoclaves in a vapor-saturated environment at 175 °C and a pressure of 0.8 MPa. They make a single brick with a size of 250x120x65 mm and a modular (one and a half) brick with a size of 250x120x88 mm; solid and hollow, front and ordinary.
Industry (Industry) is
Light industry
Light industry occupies one of the important places in the production of the gross national product and plays a significant role in the country's economy. Light industry carries out both the primary processing of raw materials and the production of finished products.
One of the features of light industry is a quick return on investment. Technological features industries allow for a quick change in the range of products with a minimum expenses, which ensures high mobility of production.
Light industry combines several sub-sectors:
Textile.
Cotton.
Woolen.
Silk.
Hemp-jute.
Knitted.
Felting and felt.
Network knitting.
Haberdashery.
Leather.
In Russia, the first light industry enterprises appeared in the 17th century. Until the 19th century, Russian light industry was represented by cloth, linen and other manufactories, created mainly with the help of the state and fulfilling government orders. The rapid growth of most branches of light industry began in the second half of the 19th century, when the landlord factories based on the labor of serfs began to be replaced by capitalist factories based on the labor of hired workers. This developed most intensively in the 1860s.
At the end of the 19th century, light industry determined the industrial development of the Russian Federation, occupying a significant share in the total volume of industrial production (32.4% in 1887, 26.1% in 1900). Some industries were practically non-existent, such as the knitwear industry.
Placement of enterprises on the territory Russian Empire was uneven. The largest number of enterprises was in the Moscow, Tver, Vladimir, St. Petersburg provinces. Light industry enterprises were located in the former centers of handicrafts.
Manual labor prevailed in all branches of light industry, and the standard of living of workers in light industry was very low. The main problems of the industry at that time were a weak raw material base and the backwardness of engineering. Russia imported about half of the necessary raw materials (dyes, raw silk) and almost all the equipment. Exports were such commodities as small leather raw materials, silkworm cocoons, morocco, yuft, furs.
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The economic period of 1900-1903 was one of the first to affect the industry, but it turned out to be not as protracted as in other industries. Already in 1908, output increased by 1.5 times compared to 1900 (the growth in the purchasing power of the peasants, who were exempted in 1905 from redemption payments, had an effect).
The pre-revolutionary light industry is characterized by a mass labor movement. The most famous performances of the workers are the strikes of the weavers of the Morozov factory in Orekhovo-Zuyevo (1885), the Ivanovo-Voznesensk weavers (1905). An important role in the economic collapse in Moscow (1905) was played by the workers of the manufactory. Ivanovo-Voznesensk weavers created a Council of Commissioners, which actually became one of the first Soviets of Workers' Deputies in the Russian Federation. Also, light industry workers took an active part in the February and October revolutions and the class struggle.
Glass and porcelain industry
The porcelain and faience industry is a branch of light industry that specializes in the production of fine ceramics: household and artistic porcelain, faience, semi-porcelain and majolica.
The history of the porcelain and faience industry in Russia dates back to 1744, when the first manufactory (now the Imperial Porcelain Factory) was opened in St. Petersburg. More than half a century later, in 1798, the first faience factory was opened near Kiev.
After the October Revolution, all enterprises of the porcelain and faience industry were nationalized. industry in the pre-war years, as well as the construction of new factories, made it possible to significantly increase the volume and expand the output. Most of the enterprises were transferred to the newly created domestic raw material base. The main suppliers of kaolin were the enrichment plants of the deposits of the Ukrainian SSR, feldspar materials - Karelia and the Murmansk region, refractory clay - the Donetsk region.
During the Great Patriotic War, some enterprises were destroyed or evacuated. After the war, the porcelain and faience industry began to revive. In the first post-war five-year plan, the construction of new factories for the production of household and artistic porcelain began. From 1959 to 1975, 19 new factories were launched, and all existing enterprises were reconstructed and equipped with modern equipment. As a result of modernization, productive suppliers industry for 1961-1975 increased 2.4 times, the level of mechanization - from 36% (1965) to 68% (1975). In 1975, the porcelain and faience industry of the USSR included 35 porcelain factories, 5 earthenware, 3 majolica, 2 experimental, 1 machine-building and 1 plant for the production of ceramic paints.
Industry (Industry) is
food industry
Food industry - a set of production of food products in finished form or in the form of semi-finished products, as well as tobacco trade items, soap and detergents.
In the system of the agro-industrial complex, the food industry is closely connected with agriculture as a supplier of raw materials and with trade. Part of the branches of the food industry gravitates towards raw material areas, the other part towards consumption areas.
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Soft drinks industry
wine industry
confectionery industry
canning industry
pasta industry
Fat and oil industry
Butter and cheese industry
Dairy industry
Flour and cereal industry.
Meat industry
brewing industry
Fruit and vegetable industry
poultry industry
Fish industry
sugar industry
salt industry
Alcohol industry
tobacco industry.
Moscow State University of Food Production
St. Petersburg State University of Low Temperature and Food Technologies.
Industry (Industry) is
Industry- leading branches of material production; enterprises engaged in the extraction of raw materials, the production and processing of materials and energy, the manufacture of machines. The industrial sector of the economy includes the mining industry, manufacturing ... ... Financial vocabulary
INDUSTRY- (industry), the most important branch of material production, which includes industrial production activities of enterprises. Distinguish: mining and manufacturing industry; heavy, light, food and other industries, in their own ... ... Modern Encyclopedia - Industry. This word is used in a broader and narrower sense. In the first sense, it is generally understood as any economic activity of a person that is carried out as a trade and is aimed at creating, transforming or moving ... ... Encyclopedia of Brockhaus and Efron
Industry- (industry) The sector of the economy associated with production. Business. Dictionary. Moscow: INFRA M, Ves Mir Publishing House. Graham Bets, Barry Brindley, S. Williams et al. Osadchaya I.M.. 1998. Industry ... Glossary of business terms
INDUSTRY- (industry) the most important branch of the national economy, which has a decisive impact on the level of economic development of society. It consists of two large groups of industries, mining and processing. The industry is conditionally divided into ... ... Big encyclopedic Dictionary, . This book will be produced in accordance with your order using Print-on-Demand technology. Industry and Trade in Legislative Institutions / Council of Congresses of Representatives of Industry and…
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