Frederick IIFriedrich II, King of Prussia since 1740. A bright representative of the enlightened
absolutism, the founder of the Prussian-German statehood.

In 1756, Friedrich attacked Austrian allied Saxony and entered Dresden. He justified his
actions by a "preemptive strike", claiming that a Russian-Austrian
a coalition that was ready for aggression. Then followed the bloody Lobozitskaya battle, in
which Frederick won. In May 1757 Frederick took Prague, but then on June 18, 1757
year he was defeated in the Battle of Kolinsky.
The battle of Zorndorf on August 25, 1758 ended with the victory of the Russians (according to the unwritten laws of that
time, the winner was the one who left the battlefield behind; the battlefield of Zorndorf
remained for the Russians), the Battle of Kunersdorf in 1759 dealt a moral blow to Friedrich.
The Austrians occupied Dresden, and the Russians Berlin. Victory provided some respite
in the Battle of Liegnitz, but Frederick was finally exhausted. Only contradictions between
Austrian and Russian generals kept it from final collapse.
The sudden death of the Russian Empress Elizabeth in 1761 brought an unexpected deliverance.
The new Russian Tsar Peter III turned out to be a great admirer of Frederick's talent, with whom he
signed a truce. Received power as a result of the palace
coup, Empress Catherine II did not dare to again involve Russia in the war and withdrew all
Russian troops from the occupied territories. Over the next decades, she
maintained friendly relations with Friedrich in line with the policy of the so-called. northern chord.

Pyotr Alexandrovich Rumyantsev

Manifestation in the Seven Years' War:
By the beginning of the Seven Years' War, Rumyantsev already had the rank of major general. As part of the Russian troops under
under the command of S. F. Apraksin, in 1757 he arrived in Courland. 19 (30) August distinguished himself
at the Battle of Gross-Jägersdorf. He was entrusted with the leadership of a reserve of four infantry
regiments - Grenadier, Trinity, Voronezh and Novgorod - which was located on the other
side of the forest that bordered the Jagersdorf field. The battle continued with varying success, and
when the Russian right flank began to retreat under the blows of the Prussians, Rumyantsev, without an order to
on his own initiative he threw his fresh reserve against the left flank of the Prussian infantry.
In January 1758, the columns of Saltykov and Rumyantsev (30,000) went on a new campaign and
occupied Koenigsberg, and then the whole of East Prussia. In summer Rumyantsev's cavalry
(4000 sabers) covered the maneuvers of Russian troops in Prussia, and her actions were
recognized as exemplary. In the battle of Zorndorf Rumyantsev, direct participation
did not accept, however, after the battle, covering Fermor's retreat to Pomerania, 20
dismounted dragoon and equestrian grenadier squadrons of the Rumyantsev detachment were detained
for the whole day, the 20,000th Prussian corps at Pass Krug.
In August 1759, Rumyantsev and his division took part in the Battle of Kunersdorf.
The division was located in the center of the Russian positions, at the height of the Great Spitz. It is she
became one of the main objects of attack by the Prussian troops after they crushed the left flank
Russians. Rumyantsev's division, however, despite heavy artillery fire and
the onslaught of the Seydlitz heavy cavalry ( best forces Prussians), beat off
numerous attacks and went into a bayonet counterattack, which he personally led
Rumyantsev. This blow threw back the army of King Frederick II, and she began to retreat,
pursued by the cavalry.

Willim Villimovich Fermor

Manifestation in the Seven Years' War:
Fermor's military career peaked during the Seven Years' War. In the rank of General-in-Chief, he
brilliantly takes Memel, contributes to the victory of the Russian troops at Gross-Jegersdorf (1757).
In 1758 he became the commander of the Russian troops instead of S. F. Apraksin,
takes Königsberg and all of East Prussia. Empress Maria Theresa was erected
to the dignity of a count. Unsuccessfully besieged Danzig and Kustrin; commanded the Russians
troops in the battle of Zorndorf, for which he received the Order of Andrei
First-Called and Saint Anne.
Post-war life:
Participated in the battle of Kunersdorf (1759). In 1760 he acted along the banks of the Oder for
distraction of Friedrich's forces, for a short time replaced the ill Saltykov at the post
commander in chief, and at that time one of his detachments (under
command of Totleben) Berlin was occupied. At this time, on duty
officer, and then general on duty at Fermor, the future great Russian
commander A. V. Suvorov.
At the end of the war in 1762 he was dismissed from military service. Appointed next year
governor-general of Smolensk, and after 1764 he headed a commission in the Senate on
salt and wine collections. Empress Catherine II entrusted him with the restoration
the city of Tver, almost completely destroyed by fire. In 1768 or 1770 he came out in
resignation, on September 8 (19), 1771 he died.

Stepan Fedorovich Apraksin

Stepan Fedorovich Apraksin
Manifestation in the Seven Years' War:
When Russia concluded an anti-Prussian alliance with Austria, Empress Elizabeth
Petrovna granted Apraksin a field marshal and appointed
commander-in-chief of the active army.
In May 1757, Apraksin's army, numbering up to 100 thousand people, of which -
20 thousand irregular troops set out from Livonia in the direction of the river
Neman. 20 thousandth detachment under the command of General-in-Chief Fermor at
support of the Russian fleet besieged Memel, the capture of which on June 25 (according to the old
style) in 1757 was the signal for the start of the campaign.
Apraksin with the main forces moved in the direction of Verzhbolovo and Gumbinen.
The enemy of the Russian army in East Prussia was left for her
guard corps under the command of Field Marshal Lewald, numbering
30.5 thousand soldiers and 10 thousand militias. Having learned about the bypass movement of the Russian
army, Lewald came out to meet her with the intention of attacking the Russian
troops. General battle between the Prussian and Russian armies
happened on August 19 (30), 1757 near the village of Gross-Egersdorf and ended
the victory of the Russian troops. For five hours of battle, the losses of the Prussian side exceeded
4.5 thousand people, Russian troops - 5.7 thousand, of which 1487 were killed. news about
victory was received with enthusiasm in St. Petersburg, and Apraksin received in his coat of arms
two cannons placed crosswise.

Pyotr Semyonovich Saltykov

Manifestation in the Seven Years' War
In the Seven Years' War (1756-1763) Russian empire spoke
ally of France and Austria. Russia's main adversary in
this war was Prussia, whose army he personally led
King Friedrich II. However, the period of this war from 1757 to 1758
the year was not very successful for the Russian army,
especially after the bloody pyrrhic victory of the Russian troops over
Friedrich's army at Zorndorf. Inefficiency of actions
and the fall of the authority of the commander-in-chief of the Russian
Fermor's troops led to the fact that
Empress Elizabeth dismissed him. Replaced it
in this post Saltykov - the appointment took place in 1759.

By strengthening the supreme power, mobilizing resources, creating a well-organized, large army(for 100 years it has grown 25 times and reached 150 thousand people), a relatively small Prussia is turning into a strong aggressive power. The Prussian army becomes one of the best in Europe. It was distinguished by: iron discipline, high maneuverability on the battlefield, precise execution of orders. In addition, the Prussian army was led by an outstanding commander of that era - King Frederick II the Great, who made a significant contribution to the theory and practice of military affairs. By the middle of the XVIII century. Anglo-French contradictions connected with the struggle for the redistribution of the colonies are also sharply aggravated. All this led to changes in traditional ties. England makes an alliance with Prussia. This forces former adversaries - France and Austria - to rally in the face of the threat from the Anglo-Prussian alliance. The latter unleashes the Seven Years' War (1756-1763). It involved two coalitions. On the one hand, England (in union with Hanover), Prussia, Portugal and some German states. On the other hand, Austria, France, Russia, Sweden, Saxony and most of the German states. As for Russia, St. Petersburg was not satisfied with the further strengthening of Prussia, fraught with its claims to influence in Poland and the former possessions of the Livonian Order. This directly affected Russian interests. Russia joined the Austro-French coalition and, at the request of its ally, the Polish king Augustus III, in 1757 entered the Seven Years' War. First of all, Russia was interested in the territory of East Prussia, which Petersburg intended to give to the Commonwealth, receiving from it in return the region of Courland bordering Russia. In the Seven Years' War, Russian troops acted both independently (in East Prussia, Pomerania, on the Oder), and in cooperation with their Austrian allies (on the Oder, in Silesia).

Campaign of 1757

In 1757, Russian troops operated mainly in East Prussia. In May, the army under the command of Field Marshal Stepan Apraksin (55 thousand people) crossed the border of East Prussia, which was defended by troops under the command of Field Marshal Lewald (30 thousand regular troops and 10 thousand armed inhabitants). In the campaign, according to the memoirs of contemporaries, they did not go with an easy heart. Since the time of Ivan the Terrible, the Russians had not actually fought the Germans, so the enemy was known only by hearsay. The Russian army knew about the famous victories of the Prussian king Frederick II the Great and therefore they were afraid of the Prussians. According to the memoirs of a participant in the campaign, the future writer Andrei Bolotov, after the first unsuccessful border skirmish for the Russians, the army was seized by "great timidity, cowardice and fear." Apraksin avoided clashes with Lewald in every possible way. This also happened at Velau, where the Prussians occupied strong fortified positions. "Peaceful Field Marshal" did not dare to attack them, but decided to bypass them. To do this, he started a crossing across the Pregel River in the area of ​​​​the village of Gross-Egersdorf, in order to then move to Allenburg, bypassing the Prussian positions. Upon learning of this maneuver, Lewald, with an army of 24,000, hastened to meet the Russians.

Battle of Gross-Jägersdorf (1757). After the crossing, the Russian troops found themselves in an unfamiliar wooded and swampy area and lost their order of battle. Lewald took advantage of this, who on August 19, 1757 swiftly attacked the Russian units scattered near the river. The main blow fell on the 2nd division of General Vasily Lopukhin, which did not have time to finish building. She suffered heavy losses, but showed resilience and did not retreat. Lopukhin himself, wounded by bayonets, came to the Prussians, but was repulsed by his soldiers and died in their arms. The Russians could not hold back a repeated attack in the same direction and were pressed against the forest. They were threatened with complete defeat, but then the brigade of General Pyotr Rumyantsev intervened in the matter, which decided the outcome of the battle. Seeing the death of his comrades, Rumyantsev hastened to their aid. Having forced their way through the forest thickets, his brigade delivered an unexpected blow to the flank and rear of Lewald's infantry. The Prussians could not withstand the bayonet attack and began to back away. This made it possible for the Russian center to recover, form up and go on the counterattack. Meanwhile, the Don Cossacks distinguished themselves on the left flank. With a feigned retreat, they brought the Prussian cavalry under fire from infantry and artillery, and then also launched a counterattack. The Prussian army retreated everywhere. The damage of the Russians amounted to 5.4 thousand people, the Prussians - 5 thousand people.

This was the first Russian victory over the Prussian army. She greatly boosted their morale by dispelling past fears. According to the foreign volunteers who were in Apraksin's army (in particular, the Austrian Baron Andre), such a fierce battle has never happened in Europe. Gross-Jegersdorf's experience showed that the Prussian army did not like close bayonet fighting, in which the Russian soldier showed high fighting qualities. However, Apraksin did not develop success and soon withdrew the troops back to the border. According to a widespread version, the reason for his departure was not military, but internal political in nature. Apraksin was afraid that after the death of the ill Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, her nephew Peter III, an opponent of the war with Prussia, would come to power. A more prosaic reason that stopped the Russian offensive was the smallpox epidemic, which caused great devastation in the ranks of the Russian army. So, in 1757, 8.5 times more soldiers died from diseases than on the battlefields. As a result, the campaign of 1757 ended tactically for the Russians to no avail.

Campaign of 1758

Elizaveta Petrovna, who soon recovered, removed Apraksin from command and placed General William Farmer at the head of the army, demanding that he vigorously continue the campaign. In January 1758, the 30,000-strong Russian army again crossed the border of East Prussia. The second East Prussian campaign ended quickly and almost bloodlessly. Not expecting the Russians to launch a winter campaign, Frederick II sent Lewald's corps to Stettin (now Szczecin) to defend against a Swedish attack. As a result, small garrisons remained in East Prussia, which offered almost no resistance to the Russians. On January 11, Koenigsberg surrendered, and the population of East Prussia was soon sworn in to the Russian Empress. Thus fell the last stronghold left from the previous conquests of the crusaders in the Baltic, and Elizaveta Petrovna, as it were, completed the work begun by Alexander Nevsky. In fact, in the winter of 1758, Russia fulfilled its immediate goals in the Seven Years' War. Having waited out the spring thaw, the Farmer moved the army to the Oder, in the Kyustrin (Kyustshin) region, where he planned to enter into interaction with the Swedish army, which was located on the Baltic coast. The appearance of the Russians at Kustrin (75 km from Berlin) seriously alarmed Frederick II. In an effort to avert the threat from his capital, the Prussian king left a barrier in Silesia against the Austrians, and he himself moved against Farmer. The 33,000-strong army of Friedrich approached the Oder, on the other side of which stood the 42,000-strong army of Farmer. On a night march, the Prussian king climbed the river to the north, crossed the Oder and went to the rear of the Farmer, cutting off his retreat. The Russian commander accidentally learned about this from the Cossacks, one of whose patrols had a skirmish with the Prussians. The farmer immediately lifted the siege of Kustrin and placed his army in a favorable position near the village of Zorndorf.

Battled at Zorndorf (1758). On August 14, 1758, at 9 am, the Prussians attacked the right wing of the Russian army. The first blow was taken by the so-called. "Observation Corps", consisting entirely of recruits. But he did not flinch and held back the onslaught. Soon the Russian cavalry pushed back the Prussians. In turn, she was overturned by the Prussian cavalry under the command of the famous General Seydlitz. Clouds of dust from under the hooves, smoke from the shots were carried by the wind to the Russian positions and made it difficult to see. The Russian cavalry, pursued by the Prussians, galloped to their infantry, but they, without understanding, opened fire on it. The soldiers of both armies mingled in the dust and smoke, and the massacre began. Having fired their cartridges, the Russian infantry stood firm, fighting back with bayonets and cleavers. True, while some fought heroically, others got to the barrels of wine. After getting drunk, they began to beat their officers and disobeyed orders. Meanwhile, the Prussians attacked the Russian left wing, but were repulsed and put to flight. The fierce fighting continued until late in the evening. On both sides, the soldiers ran out of gunpowder, and they fought hand-to-hand with cold weapons. Andrei Bolotov describes the courage of his compatriots in the last moments of the Battle of Zorndorf in this way: “In groups, in small groups, having shot their last cartridges, they remained as hard as a rock. Many, pierced through, continued to stay on their feet and fight, others, having lost a leg or arm already lying on the ground, they tried to kill the enemy with the surviving hand. Here is the testimony from the opposite side of the Prussian cavalry captain von Kate: "The Russians lay in rows, kissed their cannons - while they themselves were cut down with sabers - and did not leave them." Exhausted, both troops spent the night on the battlefield. The Prussians lost more than 11 thousand people in the Battle of Zorndorf. Russian damage exceeded 16 thousand people. ("Observation Corps" lost 80% of its composition). In relation to the number of dead and wounded to the total number of troops participating in the battle (32%), the Battle of Zorndorf is one of the bloodiest battles of the 18th-19th centuries. The next day the Farmer retreated first. This gave Frederick a reason to attribute the victory to himself. However, having suffered heavy losses, he did not dare to pursue the Russians and withdrew his battered army to Kustrin. With the battle of Zorndorf, the Farmer actually completed the campaign of 1758. In the autumn, he retired to winter quarters in Poland. After this battle, Friedrich uttered a phrase that went down in history: "Russians are easier to kill than to defeat."

Campaign of 1759

In 1759, the Russians agreed on joint operations with the Austrians on the Oder, and General Pyotr Saltykov was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Russian troops. Here is the impression of one of the eyewitnesses about him: "The old man is gray-haired, small, unpretentious ... without any decorations and pomp ... He seemed to us a real chicken, and no one dared to think that he could do something important." Meanwhile, the most brilliant campaign of the Russian troops in the Seven Years' War is connected with Saltykov.

Battle of Palzig (1759). The path of Saltykov's troops (40 thousand people), marching to the Oder to connect with the Austrian corps of General Laudon, was blocked by the Prussian corps under the command of General Wedel (28 thousand people). In an effort to prevent a meeting of the allies, on July 12, 1759, Vedel attacked the Russian positions near Palzig (a German village southeast of Frankfurt an der Oder). Against the Prussian linear tactics, Saltykov used a defense in depth. The Prussian infantry furiously attacked the Russian positions four times. Having lost more than 4,000 men in unsuccessful attacks alone, Vedel was forced to retreat. “Thus,” Saltykov wrote in his report, “the proud enemy was completely defeated, driven away and defeated in a five-hour fierce battle. the act of the soldiery of all foreign volunteers was astonished." Russian losses amounted to 894 killed and 3897 wounded. Saltykov almost did not pursue the Prussians, which allowed them to avoid complete defeat. After the battle of Palzig, the Russians occupied Frankfurt an der Oder and joined up with the Austrians. The victory near Palzig raised the morale of the Russian troops and strengthened their faith in the new commander-in-chief.

Battle of Kunersdorf (1759). After connecting with the Laudon corps (18 thousand people), Saltykov occupied Frankfurt an der Oder. Friedrich was afraid of the Russian movement towards Berlin. At the end of July, his army crossed to the right bank of the Oder and entered the rear of the Russian-Austrian army. The Prussian king planned with his famous oblique attack to break through the left flank, where the Russian units stood, to press the allied army to the river and destroy it. On August 1, 1759, at 11 a.m. near the village of Kunersdorf, the Prussian army led by King Frederick the Great (48 thousand people) attacked the fortified position of the Russian-Austrian troops under the command of General Saltykov (41 thousand Russians and 18 thousand Austrians) . The hottest battles unfolded for the heights of Mulberg (left flank) and B. Spitz (the center of Saltykov's army). The Prussian infantry, having created a numerical superiority in this direction, managed to push the left flank of the Russians, where the units under the command of General Alexander Golitsyn were located. Having occupied Mühlberg, the Prussians installed artillery at this height, which opened longitudinal fire on the Russian positions. Frederick, who no longer doubted victory, sent a messenger to the capital with news of success. But while the good news was rushing to Berlin, Russian guns hit Mulberg. With accurate fire, they upset the ranks of the Prussian infantry, which was about to launch an attack from this height on the center of the Russian positions. Finally, the Prussians delivered the main blow to the center, to the B. Spitz height area, where the regiments under the command of General Pyotr Rumyantsev were stationed. At the cost of heavy losses, the Prussian infantry managed to reach the height at which a fierce battle broke out. Russian soldiers showed great stamina and repeatedly launched counterattacks. The Prussian king brought up more and more new forces, but in the "game of reserves" he was outplayed by the Russian commander in chief. Saltykov, who tightly controlled the course of the battle, promptly sent reinforcements to the most threatened areas. To support his tormented infantry, Frederick sent General Seydlitz's shock cavalry into battle. But she suffered heavy losses from rifle and artillery fire and retreated after a short fight. After that, Rumyantsev led his soldiers into a bayonet counterattack. They overturned the Prussian infantry and threw it from a height into a ravine. The surviving remnants of the Prussian cavalry fought their way to the aid of their own, but were driven back by a blow from the right flank by the Russian-Austrian units. At this turning point in the battle, Saltykov gave the order to go on the general offensive. Despite exhaustion after many hours of battle, the Russian soldiers found the strength in themselves for a powerful attack, which turned the Prussian army into a wholesale flight. By seven in the evening it was all over. The Prussian army suffered a crushing defeat. Most of its soldiers fled, and after the battle, Frederick had only 3 thousand people under arms. The state of the king is evidenced by his letter to one of his friends the day after the battle: "Everything is running, and I no longer have power over the army ... A cruel misfortune, I will not survive it. The consequences of the battle will be worse than the battle itself: I have more there are no means and, to tell the truth, I consider everything lost. The damage of the Prussians amounted to over 7.6 thousand killed and 4.5 thousand prisoners and deserters. The Russians lost 2.6 thousand killed, 10.8 thousand wounded. Austrians - 0.89 thousand killed, 1.4 thousand wounded. Heavy losses, as well as contradictions with the Austrian command, did not allow Saltykov to use his triumph to take Berlin and defeat Prussia. At the request of the Austrian command, instead of attacking Berlin, Russian troops went to Silesia. This made it possible for Frederick to recover and recruit a new army.

Kunersdorf is the largest battle of the Seven Years' War and one of the brightest victories of Russian weapons in the 18th century. She nominated Saltykov to a number of outstanding Russian commanders. In this battle, he used the traditional Russian military tactics - the transition from defense to offensive. So Alexander Nevsky won on Lake Peipus, Dmitry Donskoy - on the Kulikovo field, Peter the Great - near Poltava, Minikh - at Stavuchany. For the victory at Kunersdorf, Saltykov received the rank of field marshal. The participants in the battle were awarded a special medal with the inscription "To the Victor over the Prussians".

Campaign of 1760

As Prussia weakened and the end of the war approached, the contradictions in the camp of the allies escalated. Each of them achieved his own goals, which did not coincide with the intentions of his partners. Thus, France did not want the complete defeat of Prussia and wanted to keep it in opposition to Austria. She, in turn, sought to weaken the Prussian power as much as possible, but sought to do it with the hands of the Russians. On the other hand, both Austria and France were unanimous that Russia should not be allowed to grow stronger, and persistently protested against East Prussia joining it. The Russians, who on the whole had fulfilled their tasks in the war, were now sought to be used by Austria to conquer Silesia. When discussing the plan for 1760, Saltykov proposed to transfer hostilities to Pomerania (an area on the Baltic coast). According to the commander, this region remained not devastated by the war and it was easy to get food there. In Pomerania, the Russian army could interact with the Baltic Fleet and receive reinforcements by sea, which strengthened its position in this region. In addition, the occupation of the Baltic coast of Prussia by the Russians sharply reduced its trade relations and increased Frederick's economic difficulties. However, the Austrian leadership managed to convince Empress Elizabeth Petrovna to transfer the Russian army to Silesia for joint operations. As a result, Russian troops were fragmented. Insignificant forces were sent to Pomerania, to the siege of Kolberg (now the Polish city of Kolobrzeg), and the main ones - to Silesia. The campaign in Silesia was characterized by inconsistency in the actions of the allies and Saltykov's unwillingness to kill his soldiers in order to protect the interests of Austria. At the end of August, Saltykov fell seriously ill, and command soon passed to Field Marshal Alexander Buturlin. The only striking episode in this campaign was the capture by the corps of General Zakhar Chernyshev (23 thousand people) of Berlin.

Capture of Berlin (1760). On September 22, a Russian cavalry detachment under the command of General Totleben approached Berlin. In the city there were, according to the testimony of the prisoners, only three battalions of infantry and several squadrons of cavalry. After a short artillery preparation, Totleben stormed the capital of Prussia on the night of September 23. At midnight, the Russians broke into the Gallic Gates, but were repulsed. The next morning, the Prussian corps headed by the Prince of Württemberg (14 thousand people) approached Berlin. But at the same time, Chernyshev's corps arrived in time for Totleben. By September 27, the 13,000th Austrian corps also approached the Russians. Then the Prince of Württemberg with his troops left the city in the evening. At 3 am on September 28, parliamentarians arrived from the city with a message of consent to surrender to the Russians. After spending four days in the capital of Prussia, Chernyshev destroyed the mint, the arsenal, took possession of the royal treasury and took an indemnity of 1.5 million thalers from the city authorities. But soon the Russians left the city at the news of the approach of the Prussian army led by King Frederick II. According to Saltykov, the abandonment of Berlin was due to the inaction of the Austrian commander-in-chief Daun, who gave the Prussian king the opportunity to "beat us as much as he pleases." The capture of Berlin was of more financial than military importance to the Russians. No less important was the symbolic side of this operation. This was the first ever capture of Berlin by Russian troops. Interestingly, in April 1945, before the decisive assault on the German capital, Soviet soldiers received a symbolic gift - copies of the keys to Berlin, handed by the Germans to Chernyshev's soldiers in 1760.

Campaign of 1761

In 1761, the Allies again failed to reach concerted action. This allowed Frederick, successfully maneuvering, to once again avoid defeat. The main Russian forces continued to act ineffectively together with the Austrians in Silesia. But the main success fell to the lot Russian units in Pomerania. This success was the capture of Kolberg.

Capture of Kolberg (1761). The first Russian attempts to take Kolberg (1758 and 1760) ended in failure. In September 1761 a third attempt was made. This time, the 22,000-strong corps of General Pyotr Rumyantsev, the hero of Gross-Jägersdorf and Kunersdorf, was moved to Kolberg. In August 1761, Rumyantsev, using the tactics of loose formation, new for those times, defeated the Prussian army under the command of the Prince of Württemberg (12 thousand people) on the outskirts of the fortress. In this battle and in the future, the Russian ground forces were supported by the Baltic Fleet under the command of Vice Admiral Polyansky. On September 3, the Rumyantsev Corps began the siege. It lasted four months and was accompanied by actions not only against the fortress, but also against the Prussian troops, who threatened the besiegers from the rear. The military council spoke three times in favor of lifting the siege, and only the unyielding will of Rumyantsev made it possible to bring the matter to a successful end. On December 5, 1761, the garrison of the fortress (4 thousand people), seeing that the Russians were not leaving and were going to continue the siege in the winter, capitulated. The capture of Kolberg allowed Russian troops to capture the Baltic coast of Prussia.

The battles for Kolberg made an important contribution to the development of Russian and world military art. Here the beginning of a new military tactic of loose formation was laid. It was under the walls of Kolberg that the famous Russian light infantry, the rangers, was born, the experience of which was then used by other European armies. Near Kolberg, Rumyantsev first used battalion columns in combination with loose formation. This experience was then effectively used by Suvorov. This method of combat appeared in the West only during the wars of the French Revolution.

Peace with Prussia (1762). The capture of Kolberg was the last victory of the Russian army in the Seven Years' War. The news of the surrender of the fortress found Empress Elizabeth Petrovna on her deathbed. The new Russian emperor Peter III concluded a separate peace with Prussia, then an alliance and returned to her free of charge all her territories, which by that time had been captured by the Russian army. This saved Prussia from inevitable defeat. Moreover, in 1762, Frederick managed, with the help of Chernyshev's corps, which was now temporarily operating as part of the Prussian army, to oust the Austrians from Silesia. Although Peter III was overthrown in June 1762 by Catherine II and the union treaty was annulled, the war was not resumed. The number of those killed in the Russian army in the Seven Years' War amounted to 120 thousand people. Of these, approximately 80% were those who died from diseases, including from the smallpox epidemic. The excess of sanitary losses over combat losses was at that time also characteristic of other countries participating in the war. It should be noted that the end of the war with Prussia was not only the result of the moods of Peter III. It had more serious reasons. Russia achieved its main goal - the weakening of the Prussian state. However, its complete collapse was hardly part of the plans of Russian diplomacy, since it strengthened, first of all, Austria - Russia's main competitor in the future division of the European part. Ottoman Empire. And the war itself has long threatened a financial catastrophe. Russian economy. Another question is that the "chivalrous" gesture of Peter III in relation to Frederick II did not allow Russia to take full advantage of the fruits of its victories.

Results of the war. A fierce struggle was also going on in other theaters of operations of the Seven Years' War: in the colonies and at sea. According to the Treaty of Hubertusburg in 1763 with Austria and Saxony, Prussia secured Silesia. Under the Paris Peace Treaty of 1763, Canada, East. Louisiana, most of the French possessions in India. The main result of the Seven Years' War was the victory of Great Britain over France in the struggle for colonial and commercial superiority.

For Russia, the consequences of the Seven Years' War turned out to be much more valuable than its results. She significantly increased the combat experience, military art and authority of the Russian army in Europe, which had previously been seriously shaken by Minich's wanderings in the steppe. In the battles of this campaign, a generation of outstanding commanders (Rumyantsev, Suvorov) and soldiers were born who achieved striking victories in the "age of Catherine". It can be said that most of Catherine's successes in foreign policy was prepared by the victories of Russian weapons in the Seven Years' War. In particular, Prussia suffered huge losses in this war and could not actively interfere with Russian policy in the West in the second half of the 18th century. In addition, under the influence of impressions brought from the fields of Europe, in Russian society after the Seven Years' War, ideas about agrarian innovations, rationalization Agriculture. Interest in foreign culture is also growing, in particular, in literature and art. All these sentiments were developed in the next reign.

"From Ancient Russia to the Russian Empire". Shishkin Sergey Petrovich, Ufa.

Seven Years' War 1756-1763 arose from a number of conflicts between the main European powers. The fact is that at the time under review, the two countries fought for the right to act as a leader in the international arena. France and England entered into a protracted period of conflict, which made an armed clash between them inevitable. At this time, both countries embarked on the path of colonial conquests, and friction constantly arose between them due to the division of territories and spheres of influence. North American and Indian territories became the main arena of confrontation. In these lands, both warring parties constantly clashed in defining borders and redistributing areas. It was these contradictions that led to the military conflict.

Background of the collision

Seven Years' War 1756-1763 was also the result of the strengthening of the Prussian state. Frederick II created an army that was very efficient by those standards, thanks to which he made a number of seizures, due to which he rounded the borders of his country. This expansion came at the expense of Austria, from which he took the Silesian lands. Silesia was one of the richest regions of this state, and this loss was a significant loss for the state. It is not surprising, therefore, that Empress Maria Theresa was interested in the return of lost lands. Under these conditions, the Prussian ruler sought support from England, which, in turn, sought to secure its European possessions (Hanover), and was also interested in support in retaining these lands.

Seven Years' War 1756-1763 became a consequence of the contradictions between England and France over the division of colonial lands, as already mentioned above. Our country also had grounds for participating in the armed confrontation. The fact is that the claims of the Prussian state threatened spheres of influence on the Polish, Baltic borders. In addition, Russia since the 1740s. connected with Austria by a system of treaties. On this basis, the rapprochement of our country with France took place, thus the anti-Prussian coalition took shape.

The beginning of the confrontation

Causes of the Seven Years' War of 1756-1763 defined its scope. The leading European powers were drawn into the course of hostilities. In addition, several fronts of warfare were formed: continental, North American, Indian and others. This military confrontation between the blocs changed the balance of power in Western Europe and changed its geopolitical map.

Seven Years' War 1756-1763 began with the attack of the Prussian king on Saxony. The calculation of this ruler was as follows: he planned to create a bridgehead here to attack the enemy. In addition, he wanted to use Austria as a prosperous region to replenish his army, and also intended to use its economic and material resources. He repulsed the Saxon attack and occupied these lands. After this victory, the Prussian king inflicted a series of blows on the Austrians, he even captured the city of Prague for a while, but later the Austrian army defeated him near the city of Kolin. However, the Prussian army was victorious at Leuthen, thus restoring the original balance of power.

Continuation of hostilities

The entry of France into the war greatly complicated the position of the Prussian king, but nevertheless he managed to inflict a serious blow on his new enemy at Rosbach. Then fighting our country started. The Russian army was considered one of the strongest in Europe, but it was unable to realize its advantages largely due to the fact that the generals of the seven-year war of 1756-1763. failed to take full advantage of its potential. In the very first major battle, the commander of the Apraksin troops, despite the victory over the enemy, unexpectedly gave the order to retreat. The next battle was led by the Englishman Fermor. Under his leadership, Russian troops took part in one of the bloodiest battles during the military campaign of the second year of the war. This battle did not bring any decisive success to either side. one of his contemporaries called the strangest battle.

Victories of Russian weapons

The Seven Years' War of 1756-1763, which is usually briefly reported in schools in connection with Russia's participation in it, entered its decisive phase of warfare in the third year of its development. This was largely due to the victory won by the Russian army under the leadership of the new commander Saltykov. He was very smart, besides, he was popular among the soldiers. It was under his leadership that the Russian army won its glorious victory at Kunersdorf. Then it was utterly defeated, and the king faced a real threat of capturing the capital of his state. However, instead, the allied army withdrew, as the countries of the anti-Prussian coalition began to accuse each other of violating obligations.

Further course of action

However, the position of Frederick II was extremely difficult. He turned to England for help, asking her to act as an intermediary in holding a peace congress. Seven Years' War 1756-1763 briefly reported in connection with the above battle, nevertheless continued due to the position of Russia and Austria, who intended to deliver a decisive and final blow to their enemy. The Prussian king inflicted damage on the Austrians, but still the forces were unequal. His army lost its combat effectiveness, which affected the conduct of hostilities. In 1760, Russian and Austrian troops occupied the capital of his state. However, they were soon forced to leave it, having learned about the approach of the king. In the same year, the last major battle of the war took place, in which the Prussian king nevertheless emerged victorious. But he was already exhausted: in one battle he lost almost half of his army. In addition, on secondary fronts, his opponents achieved some success.

Final stage

Causes of the Seven Years' War of 1756-1763 affected the nature of the conduct of hostilities. In fact, the main battles in Europe unfolded between Prussia and Austria with the active participation of our country. However, in connection with the death of the Russian Empress, there was a sharp change in the foreign policy course under her successor. The new emperor returned to the Prussian king all the lands occupied by Russian troops, signed a peace and alliance treaty with him, and even sent his military corps to help him. This unexpected change literally saved Prussia from final defeat.

However, Catherine II, who ascended the throne, canceled this agreement, but nevertheless, not yet feeling confident enough in the capital, she did not resume hostilities. So, by this time, the seven-year war of 1756-1763 had almost ended. Russia took an active part in it, but did not make any territorial acquisitions. The Prussian king, taking advantage of this respite, inflicted several more serious blows on the Austrians, but it became quite obvious that the resources of his country would not be able to continue the bloody battles.

North American Front in Confrontation

The fighting was not limited to the European mainland. A fierce struggle unfolded in the north of America, where the British clashed with the French for spheres of influence. For five years, there was a struggle between both sides for the capture of ports, cities and fortresses. The Seven Years' War of 1756-1763, which is usually briefly discussed only in relation to the clash of powers on the European continent, thus covered the overseas lands. The fiercest confrontation unfolded over Quebec. As a result, France was defeated and lost Canada.

Action in India

The struggle of these powers also unfolded in India, where the British successively ousted the French from their positions. Characteristically, the struggle was both over land and over the sea. Finally, the English troops drove the French out of their positions in 1760. This victory turned England into a major colonial power and finally brought India under her control.

Effects

The Seven Years' War of 1756-1763, the results of which literally changed the map of Europe and the balance of power between the leading powers, became perhaps the largest military-political clash on the continent in the middle of the 18th century. The results of this serious confrontation led to the redistribution of colonial territories and spheres of influence between states. The main consequence of the struggle was the transformation of England into the largest on the mainland. This country pressed the position of its main opponent France and took a leading position in the expansion of spheres of influence.

Terms of agreements

The results of the seven-year war of 1756-1763. affected, first of all, the redistribution of territories. In the year of the end of hostilities, a treaty was signed according to which France lost Canada, ceding this area to her rival, who also made a number of other major territorial acquisitions. The position of France after this treaty was greatly shaken. However, internal reasons also contributed a lot to this: a serious crisis was brewing in the state itself, which led to a revolution a few decades later.

In the same year, Prussia signed an agreement with Austria, according to which Silesia and some other lands remained behind it. Because of these disputed territories, both powers were in hostile relations for quite some time. But Frederick II, almost immediately after the end of the war, took a course towards rapprochement with our country. The Seven Years' War of 1756-1763, the causes, the results of which determined the development of the European powers for a whole century ahead, distributed allied relations and obligations in a new way. For Russia, the main result was that it gained extensive experience in combat operations in confrontation with the leading powers of the continent. It was from the participants in the war that the commanders of Catherine's time came out, who ensured a number of brilliant victories for our country. However, the empire did not make any territorial acquisitions. The new ruler did not declare war on the Prussian king, although she terminated the alliance treaty signed by her husband with him.

Position of the parties

Austria lost the largest number of soldiers in this war. The losses of her main enemy were half as much. There is a point of view that more than two million people died as a result of hostilities. In order to participate in the war, Great Britain intensified the exploitation of its North American colonies. In particular, taxes were raised, all sorts of obstacles were created to the development of industry on the continent, which, in turn, caused a violent outburst of discontent among the colonists, who eventually took up arms, starting a war for independence. Many historians are looking for an answer to the question of what allowed Prussia to finally win, despite the fact that several times its ruler found himself in an extremely difficult situation, which more than once threatened him with final defeat. A number of experts identify the following reasons: disagreement between the allies, the death of the Russian empress and an unexpected turn in foreign policy. However, the most important should be recognized, of course, the first reason. At critical and decisive moments, the allies could not find a common language in any way, which led to disagreement between them, which only played into the hands of the Prussian ruler.

For Prussia itself, the victory was extremely important for both domestic and foreign policy development. After the end of the war, it became one of the leading powers in Europe. This accelerated the process of uniting the fragmented German lands into a single state entity, moreover, under the leadership of this country. Thus, this state became the basis of a new European state - Germany. Thus, we can say that the war had international importance, since its results and results affected not only the situation European countries, but also on the position of colonies on other continents.

In Europe, the Seven Years' War was fought between an alliance of France, Russia, Sweden, Austria and Saxony against Prussia, Hanover and Great Britain from 1756 to 1763. However, the war was global in nature. Mainly because Britain and France were vying for dominance in North America and India. Thus, it has been called the first "world war". The North American theater of the war was called the "French and Indian" war, and in Germany the Seven Years' War is known as the "Third Silesian War".

Diplomatic revolution

The treaty signed in Aix-la-Chapelle, which ended the War of the Austrian Succession in 1748, in fact turned out to be only a truce, a temporary stop to the war. Austria, angry at Prussia and its own allies for the loss of a rich land - Silesia - began to review alliances and search for alternatives. The growing power and influence of Prussia worried Russia and raised the question of conducting a "preventive" war. Prussia believed it would take another war to keep Silesia.

In the 1750s, as tensions escalated in North America between British and French colonists competing for North American lands, she tried to prevent a subsequent war destabilizing Europe by changing her alliances. These actions, and the change in policy of King Frederick II of Prussia, known to many of his later followers as Frederick "the Great," sparked the so-called "Diplomatic Revolution" as the previous system of alliances broke down and a new one formed: Austria, France and Russia united against Britain, Prussia and Hanover.

Europe: Friedrich seeks immediate retribution

In May 1756, Britain and France formally declared war on each other, prompted by French attacks on Menorca; recently negotiated treaties have deterred other nations from trying to intervene. With new alliances, Austria was ready to strike at Prussia and take back Silesia, and Russia was also planning a similar initiative, so Frederick II, aware of the conflict that had begun, tried to gain an advantage.

He wanted to crush Austria before France and Russia could mobilize by occupying as much enemy territory as possible. Therefore, Frederick attacked Saxony in August 1756 to try to break the alliance with Austria, seize Saxon resources and organize the military campaign planned for 1757. Under pressure from the Prussian army, Saxony capitulated. Frederick took its capital, forcibly included the Saxons in his army, and sucked huge funds out of Saxony.

The Prussian forces then advanced into Bohemia, but eventually failed to gain a foothold there and retreated back into Saxony. In the spring of 1757, on May 6, the Prussians blockaded the Austrian army in Prague. However, another Austrian army came to the aid of the besieged. Fortunately for the Austrians, Frederick lost the battle on June 18 at the Battle of Kolin and was forced to leave Bohemia.

Prussia under attack

Prussia was under attack from all sides, as the French forces routed the Hanoverians, commanded by an English general (the King of England was also the King of Hanover), and headed for Prussia, while Russia entered Prussia from the east. The Russian army eventually retreated, re-occupying East Prussia in January. next year. Sweden, which fought against Prussia on the side of the Franco-Russian-Austrian alliance, also initially successfully opposed Prussia. For some time Frederick was depressed, but he proved himself a brilliant general, defeating the vastly superior French and Austrian forces: the French army at Rosbach on November 5, and the Austrian army at Leuthen on December 5. But none of these victories were enough to force either Austria or France to capitulate.

From that moment on, the French set their sights on Hanover, which had recovered from the defeat, and did not fight with Frederick, while he, quickly redeploying his troops, defeated the enemy armies one after another, preventing them from effectively uniting. Austria soon ceased to fight Prussia in the large open spaces, which allowed the Prussian army to maneuver excellently, despite the fact that this was accompanied by heavy losses among the Prussians. Britain began pursuing the French coast to try and draw off the troops, and Prussia drove the Swedes out.

Europe: victories and defeats

The British ignored the surrender of their Hanoverian army and returned to the region to contain France. This new British-Prussian army, under the command of Frederick's close ally (his brother-in-law), kept the French forces occupied in the west away from Prussia and the French colonies. They won the Battle of Minden in 1759 and carried out a series of strategic maneuvers to tie up the enemy armies.

As stated above, Frederick attacked Austria but was outnumbered during the siege and forced to retreat. Then he fought with the Russians in Zorndorf, but suffered heavy losses (a third of his army was killed). He was battered by Austria at Hochkirch, again losing a third of his army. By the end of the year, he had cleared Prussia and Silesia of enemy armies, but was severely weakened, unable to continue larger offensives. Austria was very pleased with this.

By this time, all the belligerents had spent huge sums on the war. In the Battle of Kunersdorf in August 1759, Friedrich was utterly defeated by the Austro-Russian army. On the battlefield, he lost 40% of the troops, although he managed to save the rest of the army. Thanks to Austrian and Russian caution, delays and disagreements, the victory over Prussia was not carried to its logical conclusion, and Frederick avoided capitulation.

In 1760, Frederick failed another siege, but won minor battles against the Austrians, although at the battle of Torgau he emerged victorious due to his subordinates, and not his own military talents. France, with some support from Austria, tried to bring about peace. By the end of 1761, with the enemy wintering on Prussian soil, things were not going well for Frederick, whose once highly trained army was now overwhelmed by hastily recruited recruits (far outnumbered by the enemy armies).

Friedrich could no longer perform marches and detours, and sat on the defensive. If Frederick's enemies had overcome their seeming inability to coordinate (thanks to xenophobia, enmity, confusion, class differences, etc.), the Prussians might already have been defeated. Against only part of Prussia, Frederick's efforts looked doomed, despite the fact that Austria was in dire financial straits.

The death of Elizabeth as the salvation of Prussia

Friedrich hoped for a miracle, and it happened. The Russian Empress Elizabeth II died, and Tsar Peter III became her successor. The new emperor was favorable to Prussia and made an immediate peace by sending Russian troops to help Frederick. And although soon Peter (who even tried to invade Denmark) was killed, the new empress - Peter's wife, Catherine the Great - continued to comply with the peace agreements, but withdrew the Russian army, which helped Frederick. This freed Frederick's hands and allowed him to win the battles against Austria. Britain seized the opportunity to break its alliance with Prussia (due in part to the mutual antipathy between Frederick and the new British prime minister) and declared war on Spain. Spain invaded Portugal but was stopped by the British.

World War

Although British troops fought on the Continent, Britain chose to limit itself to financial support for Frederick and Hanover (subsidies greater than anything ever given in the history of the British crown) rather than fighting in Europe. This made it possible to send troops and fleets to a completely different part of the world. The British had been fighting in North America since 1754, and the government of William Pitt decided to give even more priority to the war in America and to strike with their powerful navy against the French imperial possessions, where France was most vulnerable.

In contrast, France first focused on Europe, planning an invasion of Britain, but that opportunity was dashed by the Battle of Quiberon Bay in 1759, destroying what was left of France's Atlantic naval power and its ability to hold colonies in the Americas. By 1760, England had effectively won the "French and Indian" war in North America, but the world was waiting for the end of hostilities in other theaters.

In 1759, a small opportunistic British grouping did not suffer any losses and gained a large number of valuables, captured Fort Louis on the Senegal River in Africa. Thus, by the end of the year, all French trading posts in Africa were in the hands of the British. Britain then attacked France in the West Indies, taking the rich island of Guadeloupe and moving on to other targets for its enrichment. The British East India Company attacked the French colonies in India, and thanks to the large British Royal Navy dominating the Indian Ocean, as well as in the Atlantic, knocked France out of this region. By the end of the war, the British Empire had grown considerably, while the territory of the French possessions had been greatly reduced. England and Spain also declared war on each other, and Britain crushed her new enemy by capturing Havana and a quarter of the ships of the Spanish navy.

World

Neither Prussia, nor Austria, nor Russia or France were able to achieve the decisive advantage in the war necessary for the surrender of their enemies, and by 1763 the war in Europe had so exhausted the belligerents that the powers began to seek peace. Austria faced bankruptcy and the inability to continue the war without Russia, France was winning abroad and did not want to fight for Austria in Europe, while England sought to consolidate global success and put an end to France's resources. Prussia intended to return to the pre-war state of affairs, but as peace negotiations dragged on, Frederick sucked as much out of Saxony as he could, including kidnapping girls and placing them in depopulated areas of Prussia.

The Treaty of Paris was signed on February 10, 1763. He settled the problems between Britain, Spain and France, detracting from the latter, who was once the greatest power in Europe. Britain returned Havana to Spain, but received Florida in return. France ceded Louisiana to Spain, while England received all French lands in North America east of the Mississippi except New Orleans. Britain also received most of the West Indies, Senegal, Menorca and lands in India. Hanover remained with the British. On February 10, 1763, the Hubertusburg Peace Treaty, signed between Prussia and Austria, confirmed the status quo: it secured Silesia and achieved the status of a "great power", while Saxony remained behind Austria. As historian Fred Anderson noted, “Millions were spent and tens of thousands died, but nothing changed.”

Results

Britain remained the dominant world power, albeit heavily indebted, which led to increased exploitation of the colonies in North America, and, as a result, the war for the independence of the British colonies (another global conflict that will end in British defeat). France approached an economic disaster and the ensuing revolution. Prussia lost 10% of its population, but, crucially for Frederick's reputation, it survived an alliance of Austria, Russia and France that wanted to reduce Prussian influence or even destroy it, although historians like Szabo say that Frederick's role is too exaggerated.

Reforms followed in many belligerent states and armies, as Austrian fears that Europe was on the path to catastrophic militarism were well founded. Austria's failure to subjugate Prussia doomed her to competition between them for the future of Germany, benefiting Russia and France, and led to the emergence of the German Empire under the primacy of Prussia. The war also shifted the balance of diplomacy, with Spain and Holland declining in importance to two new Great Powers - and Russia. Saxony was robbed and destroyed.

Seven Years' War 1756-1763

The outcome of the war Austrian inheritance(1740–1748) turned Prussia into a great European power.

The main causes of the war:

1) the aggressive plans of Frederick II to gain political hegemony in Central Europe and acquire neighboring territories;

2) the clash of the aggressive policy of Prussia with the interests of Austria, France and Russia; they wanted the weakening of Prussia, its return to the borders that existed before the Silesian wars. Thus, the participants in the coalition waged a war for the restoration of the old system of political relations on the continent, violated by the results of the War of the Austrian Succession;

3) the aggravation of the Anglo-French struggle for colonies.

Opposing sides:

1) anti-Prussian coalition– Austria, France, Russia, Spain, Saxony, Sweden;

2) Prussian supporters- UK and Portugal.

Frederick II started a preventive war with an attack August 29, 1756 to Saxony, occupied and ruined it. Thus began the second biggest war epoch - Seven Years' War 1756–1763 The victories of the Prussian army of Frederick II in 1757 at Rosbach and Leuten were nullified by the victory of the Russian-Austrian troops in the Battle of Kunersdorf in 1759. Frederick II even intended to abdicate, but the situation changed dramatically due to the death of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna (1762) . Her successor was Peter III, an enthusiastic admirer of Frederick II, who renounced all claims to Prussia. In 1762 he concluded an alliance with Prussia and withdrew from the war. Catherine II terminated it, but resumed the war. The two main conflict lines of the Seven Years' War - colonial and European- matched and two peace treaties, concluded in 1763 On February 15, 1763, the Peace of Hubertusburg was concluded Austria and Saxony with Prussia based on the status quo. The borders of states in Europe remained unchanged. On November 10, 1763, the Peace of Paris was concluded at Versailles. between England on the one hand, and France and Spain on the other. The Peace of Paris confirmed all treaties between countries since the Peace of Westphalia. The Peace of Paris, along with the Treaty of Hubertusburg, ended the Seven Years' War.

The main results of the war:

1. The victory of Great Britain over France, because. across the ocean, England took possession of the richest colonies of France and became the largest colonial power.

2. The fall in prestige and the actual role of France in European affairs, which led to its complete disregard in deciding the fate of one of its main satellites – Poland.