Who united Russia against the Tatar-Mongol. Tatar-Mongol yoke in Russia

21.10.2019

Golden Horde- one of the saddest pages in Russian history. Some time after the victory in battle on Kalka, the Mongols began to prepare a new invasion of Russian lands, having studied the tactics and characteristics of the future enemy.

Golden Horde.

The Golden Horde (Ulus Juni) was formed in 1224 as a result of the division Mongol Empire Genghis Khan between his sons into the western and eastern parts. The Golden Horde became the western part of the empire from 1224 to 1266. Under the new Khan, Mengu-Timur became independent in fact (though not formally) from the Mongol Empire.

Like many states of that era, in the 15th century it experienced feudal fragmentation and as a result (and there were a lot of enemies offended by the Mongols) by the 16th century it finally ceased to exist.

Islam became the state religion of the Mongol Empire in the 14th century. It is noteworthy that in the territories under their control, the Horde khans (including in Russia) did not particularly impose their religion. The concept of "Gold" among the Horde was fixed only in the 16th century because of the golden tents of its khans.

Tatar-Mongol yoke.

Tatar-Mongol yoke, just like Mongol-Tatar yoke, - not quite true from the point of view of history. Genghis Khan considered the Tatars to be his main enemies, and destroyed most of them (almost all) of the tribes, while the rest submitted to the Mongol Empire. The number of Tatars in the Mongol troops was scanty, but due to the fact that the empire occupied all former lands Tatars, the troops of Genghis Khan began to be called Tatar-Mongolian or Mongolian-Tatar conquerors. In reality, it was Mongol yoke.

So, the Mongolian, or Horde, yoke is a system of political dependence Ancient Russia from the Mongol Empire, and a little later from the Golden Horde, as a separate state. The complete elimination of the Mongol yoke occurred only by the beginning of the 15th century, although the actual one was somewhat earlier.

The Mongol invasion began after the death of Genghis Khan Batu Khan(or Batu Khan) in 1237. The main troops of the Mongols were drawn to the territories near present-day Voronezh, which had previously been controlled by the Volga Bulgars, until they were almost destroyed by the Mongols.

In 1237, the Golden Horde captured Ryazan and destroyed the entire Ryazan principality, including small villages and towns.

In January-March 1238, the same fate befell the Vladimir-Suzdal principality and Pereyaslavl-Zalessky. Tver and Torzhok were taken last. There was a threat of taking the principality of Novgorod, but after the capture of Torzhok on March 5, 1238, having not reached Novgorod less than 100 km, the Mongols turned around and returned to the steppes.

Until the end of 38, the Mongols only made periodic raids, and in 1239 they moved to South Russia and on October 18, 1239 they took Chernigov. Putivl (the scene of the “Lament of Yaroslavna”), Glukhov, Rylsk and other cities on the territory of the present Sumy, Kharkov and Belgorod regions were destroyed.

This year Ogedei(the next ruler of the Mongol Empire after Genghis Khan) sent additional troops to Batu from Transcaucasia, and in the fall of 1240 Batu Khan laid siege to Kiev, having previously plundered all the surrounding lands. Kiev, Volyn and Galician principalities at that time ruled Danila Galitsky, the son of Roman Mstislavovich, who at that moment was in Hungary, unsuccessfully trying to conclude an alliance with the king of Hungary. Perhaps later, the Hungarians regretted their refusal to Prince Danil when the Batu Horde captured all of Poland and Hungary. Kiev was taken by the beginning of December 1240 after several weeks of siege. The Mongols began to control most of Russia, including even those areas (on an economic and political level) that they did not capture.

Kiev, Vladimir, Suzdal, Tver, Chernigov, Ryazan, Pereyaslavl and many other cities were completely or partially destroyed.

There was an economic and cultural decline in Russia - this explains the almost complete absence of chronicles of contemporaries, and as a result - the lack of information for modern historians.

For some time, the Mongols were distracted from Russia due to raids and invasions of Polish, Lithuanian, Hungarian and other European lands.

The history of Russia has always been a bit sad and turbulent due to wars, power struggles and drastic reforms. These reforms were often dumped on Russia all at once, by force, instead of being introduced gradually, measuredly, as was the case most often in history. Since the first mention of princes different cities- Vladimir, Pskov, Suzdal and Kiev - constantly fought and argued for power and control over a small semi-unified state. Under the rule of Saint Vladimir (980-1015) and Yaroslav the Wise (1015-1054)

The Kievan state was at the peak of prosperity and achieved relative peace, in contrast to past years. However, as time went on, the wise rulers died, and the struggle for power began again and wars broke out.

Before his death, in 1054, Yaroslav the Wise decided to divide the principalities between his sons, and this decision determined the future of Kievan Rus for the next two hundred years. Civil wars between the brothers ruined most of the Kiev community of cities, depriving it of the necessary resources, which would be very useful to it in the future. When the princes continuously fought with each other, the former Kievan state slowly decayed, decreased and lost its former glory. At the same time, it was weakened by the invasions of the steppe tribes - the Polovtsians (they are also Cumans or Kipchaks), and before that the Pechenegs, and in the end the Kievan state became an easy prey for more powerful invaders from distant lands.

Russia had a chance to change its fate. Around 1219, the Mongols first entered the areas near Kievan Rus, heading for, and they asked for help from the Russian princes. A council of princes met in Kiev to consider the request, which greatly worried the Mongols. According to historical sources, the Mongols declared that they were not going to attack Russian cities and lands. Mongolian envoys demanded peace with the Russian princes. However, the princes did not trust the Mongols, suspecting that they would not stop and go to Russia. The Mongol ambassadors were killed, and thus the chance for peace was destroyed by the hands of the princes of the divided Kievan state.

For twenty years, Batu Khan with an army of 200 thousand people made raids. One after another, the Russian principalities - Ryazan, Moscow, Vladimir, Suzdal and Rostov - fell into bondage to Batu and his army. The Mongols plundered and destroyed the cities, the inhabitants were killed or taken into captivity. In the end, the Mongols captured, plundered and razed to the ground Kiev, the center and symbol of Kievan Rus. Only the outlying northwestern principalities, such as Novgorod, Pskov, and Smolensk, survived the onslaught, although these cities would tolerate indirect subjugation and become appendages of the Golden Horde. Perhaps, by making peace, the Russian princes could have prevented this. However, this cannot be called a miscalculation, because then Russia would forever have to change religion, art, language, government and geopolitics.

Orthodox Church during the Tatar-Mongol yoke

Many churches and monasteries were looted and destroyed by the first Mongol raids, and countless priests and monks were killed. Those who survived were often captured and sent into slavery. The size and power of the Mongol army were shocking. Not only the economy and political structure of the country suffered, but also social and spiritual institutions. The Mongols claimed that they were God's punishment, and the Russians believed that all this was sent to them by God as a punishment for their sins.

The Orthodox Church will become a powerful beacon in the "dark years" of the Mongol dominance. The Russian people eventually turned to Orthodox Church seeking solace in their faith and guidance and support in the clergy. The raids of the steppe people caused a shock, throwing seeds on fertile ground for the development of Russian monasticism, which in turn played an important role in the formation of the worldview of the neighboring Finno-Ugric and Zyryan tribes, and also led to the colonization of the northern regions of Russia.

The humiliation to which the princes and city authorities were subjected undermined their political authority. This allowed the church to act as the embodiment of religious and national identity, filling in the lost political identity. Also helping to strengthen the church was the unique legal concept of the label, or charter of immunity. In the reign of Mengu-Timur in 1267, the label was issued to Metropolitan Kirill of Kiev for the Orthodox Church.

Although the church had come de facto under the protection of the Mongols ten years earlier (from the 1257 census by Khan Berke), this label officially recorded the inviolability of the Orthodox Church. More importantly, he officially exempted the church from any form of taxation by the Mongols or Russians. Priests had the right not to register during censuses and were exempted from forced labor and military service.

As expected, the label given to the Orthodox Church was of great importance. For the first time, the church becomes less dependent on the princely will than in any other period. Russian history. The Orthodox Church was able to acquire and secure significant tracts of land, which gave it an extremely strong position that lasted for centuries after the Mongol takeover. The charter strictly forbade both Mongolian and Russian tax agents from seizing church lands or demanding anything from the Orthodox Church. This was guaranteed by a simple punishment - death.

Another important reason for the rise of the church lay in its mission - to spread Christianity and convert village pagans to their faith. The metropolitans traveled widely throughout the country to strengthen the internal structure of the church and to solve administrative problems and control the activities of bishops and priests. Moreover, the relative security of the sketes (economic, military and spiritual) attracted the peasants. Since the rapidly growing cities interfered with the atmosphere of goodness that the church gave, the monks began to go to the desert and re-build monasteries and sketes there. Religious settlements continued to be built and thereby strengthened the authority of the Orthodox Church.

The last significant change was the relocation of the center of the Orthodox Church. Before the Mongols invaded Russian lands, church center was Kiev. After the destruction of Kiev in 1299, the Holy See moved to Vladimir, and then, in 1322, to Moscow, which significantly increased the importance of Moscow.

Fine art during the Tatar-Mongol yoke

While mass deportations of artists began in Russia, the monastic revival and attention to the Orthodox Church led to an artistic revival. What rallied the Russians at that difficult time when they found themselves without a state is their faith and ability to express their religious beliefs. During this difficult time, the great artists Feofan Grek and Andrey Rublev worked.

It was during the second half of Mongol rule in the middle of the fourteenth century that Russian iconography and fresco painting began to flourish again. Theophanes the Greek arrived in Russia in the late 1300s. He painted churches in many cities, especially in Novgorod and Nizhny Novgorod. In Moscow, he painted the iconostasis for the Church of the Annunciation, and also worked on the Church of the Archangel Michael. A few decades after Feofan's arrival, the novice Andrei Rublev became one of his best students. Iconography came to Russia from Byzantium in the 10th century, but the Mongol invasion in the 13th century cut Russia off from Byzantium.

How did the language change after the yoke

Such an aspect as the influence of one language on another may seem insignificant to us, but this information helps us understand the extent to which one nationality influenced another or groups of nationalities - on government, on military affairs, on trade, and also how geographically this spread influence. Indeed, the linguistic and even sociolinguistic impacts were great, as the Russians borrowed thousands of words, phrases, and other significant linguistic constructions from the Mongolian and Turkic languages, united in the Mongol Empire. Listed below are a few examples of words that are still in use today. All borrowings come from different parts Hordes:

barn
bazaar
money
horse
box
customs

One of the very important colloquial features of the Russian language of Turkic origin is the use of the word "come on". Listed below are a few common examples still found in Russian.

Let's have some tea.
Let's have a drink!
Let's go!

In addition, in southern Russia there are dozens of local names of Tatar/Turkic origin for land along the Volga, which are highlighted on the maps of these areas. Examples of such names: Penza, Alatyr, Kazan, names of regions: Chuvashia and Bashkortostan.

Kievan Rus was democratic state. The main governing body was the veche - a meeting of all free male citizens who gathered to discuss such issues as war and peace, law, invitation or expulsion of princes to the corresponding city; all cities in Kievan Rus had veche. It was, in fact, a forum for civil affairs, for discussing and solving problems. However, this democratic institution has undergone a serious reduction under the rule of the Mongols.

By far the most influential meetings were in Novgorod and Kiev. In Novgorod, a special veche bell (in other cities, church bells were usually used for this) served to call the townspeople, and, theoretically, anyone could ring it. When the Mongols conquered most of Kievan Rus, the veche ceased to exist in all cities except Novgorod, Pskov, and a few other cities in the northwest. Veche in these cities continued to work and develop until Moscow subjugated them at the end of the 15th century. Today, however, the spirit of the veche as a public forum has been revived in several Russian cities, including Novgorod.

Of great importance for the Mongol rulers were the censuses, which made it possible to collect tribute. To support censuses, the Mongols introduced a special dual system of regional administration headed by military governors, the Baskaks and/or civil governors, the Darugachs. In essence, the Baskaks were responsible for leading the activities of rulers in areas that resisted or did not accept Mongol rule. Darugachs were civil governors who controlled those areas of the empire that had surrendered without a fight, or that were considered to have already submitted to the Mongol troops and were calm. However, the Baskaks and Darugachi sometimes performed the duties of the authorities, but did not duplicate it.

As is known from history, ruling princes Kievan Rus was distrusted by the Mongol ambassadors who came to make peace with them in the early 1200s; the princes, regrettably, put the ambassadors of Genghis Khan to the sword and soon paid dearly. Thus, in the 13th century, Baskaks were placed on the conquered lands in order to subjugate the people and control even the daily activities of the princes. In addition, in addition to conducting a census, the Baskaks provided recruiting kits for the local population.

Existing sources and research show that the Baskaks largely disappeared from Russian lands by the middle of the 14th century, as Russia more or less recognized the power Mongolian khans. When the Baskaks left, power passed to the Darugachs. However, unlike the Baskaks, the Darugachi did not live on the territory of Rus. In fact, they were located in Saray, the old capital of the Golden Horde, located near modern Volgograd. Darugachi served on the lands of Russia mainly as advisers and advised the khan. Although the responsibility for collecting and delivering tribute and conscripts belonged to the Baskaks, with the transition from the Baskaks to the Darugachs, these duties were actually transferred to the princes themselves, when the khan saw that the princes were doing it quite well.

The first census conducted by the Mongols took place in 1257, just 17 years after the conquest of Russian lands. The population was divided into dozens - the Chinese had such a system, the Mongols adopted it, using it throughout their empire. The main purpose of the census was conscription as well as taxation. Moscow kept this practice even after it stopped recognizing the Horde in 1480. The practice interested foreign guests in Russia, for whom large-scale censuses were still unknown. One such visitor, Sigismund von Herberstein of Habsburg, noted that every two or three years the prince carried out a census throughout the land. The population census did not become widespread in Europe until the early 19th century. One significant remark that we must make: the thoroughness with which the Russians carried out the census could not be achieved for about 120 years in other parts of Europe during the era of absolutism. The influence of the Mongol Empire, at least in this area, was obviously deep and effective and helped create a strong centralized government for Russia.

One of the important innovations that the Baskaks oversaw and supported were the pits (a system of posts), which were built to provide travelers with food, lodging, horses, as well as wagons or sleighs, depending on the time of year. Originally built by the Mongols, the pit ensured the relatively rapid movement of important dispatches between the khans and their governors, as well as the rapid dispatch of envoys, local or foreign, between various principalities throughout the vast empire. There were horses at each post to carry authorized persons, as well as to replace tired horses on especially long trips. Each post, as a rule, was about a day's drive from the nearest post. Local residents were required to support caretakers, feed horses, and meet the needs of officials traveling on official business.

The system was quite efficient. Another report by Sigismund von Herberstein of Habsburg stated that the pit system allowed him to travel 500 kilometers (from Novgorod to Moscow) in 72 hours - much faster than anywhere else in Europe. The pit system helped the Mongols maintain tight control over their empire. During the dark years of the Mongols' presence in Russia at the end of the 15th century, Prince Ivan III decided to continue using the idea of the pit system in order to preserve the established system of communications and intelligence. However, the idea of a postal system as we know it today would not emerge until the death of Peter the Great in the early 1700s.

Some of the innovations brought to Russia by the Mongols satisfied the needs of the state for a long time and continued for many centuries after the Golden Horde. This greatly expanded the development and expansion of the complex bureaucracy of later, imperial Russia.

Founded in 1147, Moscow remained an insignificant city for more than a hundred years. At that time, this place lay at the crossroads of three main roads, one of which connected Moscow with Kiev. The geographical location of Moscow deserves attention, since it is located on the bend of the Moskva River, which merges with the Oka and the Volga. Through the Volga, which allows access to the Dnieper and Don rivers, as well as the Black and Caspian Seas, there have always been great opportunities for trade with near and far lands. With the onset of the Mongols, crowds of refugees began to arrive from the devastated southern part of Russia, mainly from Kiev. Moreover, the actions of the Moscow princes in favor of the Mongols contributed to the rise of Moscow as a center of power.

Even before the Mongols gave Moscow a label, Tver and Moscow were in a constant struggle for power. The main turning point occurred in 1327, when the population of Tver began to rebel. Seeing this as an opportunity to please the khan of his Mongol overlords, Prince Ivan I of Moscow with a huge Tatar army crushed the uprising in Tver, restoring order in this city and winning the favor of the khan. To demonstrate loyalty, Ivan I was also given a label, and thus Moscow moved one step closer to fame and power. The princes of Moscow soon took over the responsibility of collecting taxes throughout the land (including from themselves), and eventually the Mongols left this task solely to Moscow and stopped the practice of sending their tax collectors. Nevertheless, Ivan I was more than a shrewd politician and a model of sanity: he was perhaps the first prince to replace the traditional horizontal succession with a vertical one (although it was not fully achieved until the second reign of Prince Vasily in the middle of 1400). This change led to greater stability in Moscow and thus strengthened its position. As Moscow grew by collecting tribute, its power over other principalities was more and more asserted. Moscow received land, which meant that it collected more tribute and got more access to resources, and therefore more power.

At a time when Moscow was becoming more and more powerful, the Golden Horde was in a state of general disintegration, caused by riots and coups. Prince Dmitry decided to attack in 1376 and succeeded. Soon after, one of the Mongol generals, Mamai, tried to create his own horde in the steppes west of the Volga, and he decided to challenge the power of Prince Dmitry on the banks of the Vozha River. Dmitry defeated Mamai, which delighted the Muscovites and, of course, angered the Mongols. However, he gathered an army of 150 thousand people. Dmitry gathered an army comparable in size, and these two armies met near the Don River on Kulikovo Field in early September 1380. The Russians of Dmitry, although they lost about 100,000 people, won. Tokhtamysh, one of Tamerlane's generals, soon captured and executed General Mamai. Prince Dmitry became known as Dmitry Donskoy. However, Moscow was soon sacked by Tokhtamysh and again had to pay tribute to the Mongols.

But great battle on the Kulikovo field in 1380 was a symbolic turning point. Despite the fact that the Mongols brutally avenged Moscow for their defiance, the power that Moscow showed grew, and its influence on other Russian principalities expanded. In 1478, Novgorod finally submitted to the future capital, and Moscow soon threw off its obedience to the Mongol and Tatar khans, thus ending more than 250 years of Mongol rule.

The results of the period of the Tatar-Mongol yoke

Evidence suggests that multiple effects Mongol invasion extended to the political, social and religious aspects of Russia. Some of them, such as the growth of the Orthodox Church, had a relatively positive effect on the Russian lands, while others, such as the loss of the veche and the centralization of power, helped to stop the spread of traditional democracy and self-government for various principalities. Due to the impact on the language and form of government, the impact of the Mongol invasion is still evident today. Perhaps due to the chance to experience the Renaissance, as in other Western European cultures, the political, religious and social thought of Russia will be very different from the political reality of today. Under the control of the Mongols, who adopted many of the ideas of government and economics from the Chinese, the Russians became perhaps a more Asian country in terms of administration, and the deep Christian roots of the Russians established and helped maintain a connection with Europe. Mongol invasion, perhaps more than any other historical event, determined the course of development of the Russian state - its culture, political geography, history and national identity.

In the late autumn of 1480, the Great Standing on the Ugra ended. It is believed that after that in Russia there was no Mongol-Tatar yoke.

INSULT

The conflict between the Grand Duke of Moscow Ivan III and the Khan of the Great Horde Akhmat arose, according to one version, due to non-payment of tribute. But a number of historians believe that Akhmat received tribute, but went to Moscow because he did not wait for the personal presence of Ivan III, who was supposed to receive a label for a great reign. Thus, the prince did not recognize the authority and power of the khan.

Akhmat should have been especially offended by the fact that when he sent ambassadors to Moscow to ask for tribute and dues for past years, Grand Duke again, he did not show due respect. The Kazan History even says: “The Grand Duke was not afraid ... taking the basma, he spat, broke it, threw it to the ground and trampled it with his feet.” Of course, such behavior of the Grand Duke is hard to imagine, but the refusal to recognize the power of Akhmat followed.

Khan's pride is also confirmed in another episode. In the Ugorshchina, Akhmat, who was not in the best strategic position, demanded that Ivan III himself come to the Horde headquarters and stand at the stirrup of the lord, waiting for a decision.

WOMEN'S PARTICIPATION

But Ivan Vasilyevich was concerned about his own family. The people did not like his wife. Having panicked, the prince first of all saves his wife: “Ioann sent the Grand Duchess Sophia (a Roman, as the chroniclers say), together with the treasury, to Beloozero, giving the order to go further to the sea and ocean if the khan crosses the Oka,” wrote historian Sergey Solovyov. However, the people did not rejoice at her return from Beloozero: “ grand duchess Sofya ran from the Tatars to Beloozero, but no one drove it.

The brothers, Andrei Galitsky and Boris Volotsky, revolted, demanding to share the inheritance of their deceased brother, Prince Yuri. Only when this conflict was settled, not without the help of his mother, Ivan III could continue the fight against the Horde. In general, "women's participation" in standing on the Ugra is great. According to Tatishchev, it was Sophia who persuaded Ivan III to make a historic decision. The victory in Standing is also attributed to the intercession of the Virgin.

By the way, the size of the required tribute was relatively low - 140,000 altyns. Khan Tokhtamysh collected about 20 times more from the Vladimir principality a century before.

They did not save even when planning defense. Ivan Vasilyevich gave the order to burn the settlements. Residents were moved inside the fortress walls.

There is a version that the prince simply paid off the khan after the Standing: he paid one part of the money on the Ugra, the second - after the retreat. Beyond the Oka, Andrey Menshoi, Ivan III's brother, did not attack the Tatars, but gave the "way out".

indecisiveness

The Grand Duke refused to take action. Subsequently, posterity approved of his defensive stance. But some contemporaries had a different opinion.

At the news of Akhmat's approach, he panicked. The people, according to the chronicle, accused the prince of endangering everyone with his indecision. Fearing assassination attempts, Ivan left for Krasnoye Selo. His heir, Ivan Molodoy, was at that time with the army, ignoring the requests and letters of his father demanding to leave the army.

The Grand Duke nevertheless left in the direction of the Ugra in early October, but did not reach the main forces. In the city of Kremenets, he waited for the brothers who had reconciled with him. And at this time there were battles on the Ugra.

WHY DID THE POLISH KING NOT HELP?

Akhmat Khan's main ally, the great Lithuanian prince and Polish king Casimir IV, never came to the rescue. The question arises: why?

Some write that the king was preoccupied with the attack of the Crimean Khan Mepgli Giray. Others point to internal strife in the Lithuanian land - "a conspiracy of princes." "Russian elements", dissatisfied with the king, sought support from Moscow, wanted to reunite with the Russian principalities. There is also an opinion that the king himself did not want conflicts with Russia. The Crimean Khan was not afraid of him: the ambassador had been negotiating in Lithuania since mid-October.

And the freezing Khan Akhmat, having waited for frosts, and not for reinforcements, wrote Ivan III: “And now, if it’s gone from the shore, because I have people without clothes, and horses without blankets. And the heart of winter will pass for ninety days, and I will again attack you, and I have muddy water to drink.

Proud, but careless, Akhmat returned to the steppe with booty, ruining the lands of his former ally, and stayed for the winter at the mouth of the Donets. There, the Siberian Khan Ivak, three months after the "Ugorshchina", personally killed the enemy in a dream. An ambassador was sent to Moscow to announce the death of the last ruler of the Great Horde. Historian Sergei Solovyov writes about it this way: “The last formidable Khan of the Golden Horde for Moscow died from one of the descendants of Genghis Khanov; he had sons who were also destined to die from Tatar weapons.

Probably, the descendants still remained: Anna Gorenko considered Akhmat her maternal ancestor and, becoming a poetess, took a pseudonym - Akhmatova.

DISPUTES ABOUT PLACE AND TIME

Historians argue about where the Standing was on the Ugra. They also name the area under the Opakovy settlement, and the village of Gorodets, and the confluence of the Ugra with the Oka. “A land road from Vyazma stretched to the mouth of the Ugra along its right, “Lithuanian” bank, along which Lithuanian help was expected and which the Horde could use for maneuvers. Even in the middle of the XIX century. The Russian General Staff recommended this road for the movement of troops from Vyazma to Kaluga,” writes historian Vadim Kargalov.

The exact date of the arrival of Akhamat to the Ugra is not known either. Books and chronicles agree on one thing: it happened no earlier than the beginning of October. The Vladimir chronicle, for example, is accurate up to the hour: “I came to the Ugra on October 8, a week, at 1 o’clock in the afternoon.” In the Vologda-Perm chronicle it is written: “the tsar went away from the Ugra on Thursday, the eve of Mikhailov’s days” (November 7).

1. In 1480, the Mongol-Tatar yoke was overthrown, which, to a large extent, was the result of the activities of Ivan III, one of the most progressive Russian princes of that time. Ivan III, the son of Vasily the Dark, ascended the throne in 1462 and ruled until 1505. During his reign, fateful changes took place in the life of Muscovite Russia:

Russia was finally united around Moscow;
the Mongol-Tatar yoke was overthrown;
Russia became the political and spiritual successor of Byzantium;
the first Sudebnik of the Moscow State was compiled;
the construction of the modern Moscow Kremlin began;
Moscow prince became known as the Sovereign of All Russia.

2. The decisive step in the unification of the Russian lands around Moscow was the suppression of two feudal centers that had competed with Moscow for many years:

Novgorod in 1478;
Tver in 1485

The annexation of Novgorod, an independent trade democratic republic, to the Muscovite state took place by force. In 1478, Ivan III, worried about the desire of the Novgorodians to join Lithuania, came to Novgorod with an army and presented an ultimatum. Novgorodians, whose forces were inferior to Moscow, were forced to accept him. The Novgorod veche bell, a symbol of democracy, was removed from the bell tower and taken to Moscow, the veche was dissolved. It was during the annexation of Novgorod that Ivan III was first publicly presented as the Sovereign of All Russia.

3. After the unification of the two largest Russian centers - Moscow and Novgorod, the next step of Ivan III was the overthrow of the Mongol-Tatar yoke:

in 1478 Ivan III refused to pay tribute to the Horde;
Khan Akhmat, together with the Golden Horde army, marched on Russian lands;
in October - November 1480, the Russian and Golden Horde armies became camps on the Ugra River, which was called "standing on the Ugra River";
having stood on the Ugra for a month, on November 11, 1480, Khan Akhmat gathered his army and left for the Horde.

This event is considered the moment of the end of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, which lasted 240 years.

However, standing on the Ugra River is a symbol of the overthrow of the yoke, but not its cause.

The main reason for the rather easy overthrow of the yoke is the actual death of the Golden Horde in 1480-1481.

The geopolitical situation in the world was changed by the Turks who came from Asia:

first, in 1453, the Turks crushed the 1000-year-old Byzantium and took Constantinople;
then came the turn of the Golden Horde (also an enemy of the Turks), which in the 1460s - 1470s. subjected to devastating raids from the south;
in 1480, the Crimean Tatars, the allies of the Turks, opened a “second front” for Russia, starting an invasion of Golden Horde.

In addition, in the Golden Horde itself (by that time it had already changed its name several times - the White Horde, the Blue Horde, etc.) there were centrifugal processes - similar to those that led to the collapse of Kievan Rus. By 1480, the Golden Horde had actually disintegrated into small khanates. Sometimes the data of the khanate were "collected" by someone from " strong people"-warlords or khans, the last time the Golden Horde was united by Akhmat, who then tried to restore the vassalage of Muscovite Russia. However, while standing on the Ugra, news came of a new invasion of the Crimean Tatars and a new “Zamiatin” (civil strife) in the Golden Horde. As a result:

Khan Akhmat was forced to urgently leave the Ugra in order to fight against the invaders invading from the south;
in 1481, the army of Akhmat was defeated, Akhmat, the last khan of the Horde, was killed, and the Golden Horde ceased to exist and broke up into small khanates - Astrakhan, Kazan, Nogai, etc. That is why, having left the Ugra on November 11, 1480, the Mongol- the Tatars never returned.

The last attempt to revive the Golden Horde was made in 1492, but was thwarted by the Turks, Crimean Tatars, and local separatists. The Golden Horde finally ceased to exist. 4. The Muscovite state, on the contrary, was gaining strength and international prestige. Ivan III married Sophia (Zoya) Paleolog, the niece of the last emperor of Byzantium (the Eastern Roman Empire, which collapsed in 1453, like the Golden Horde, under the onslaught of the Turkish invasion). The young Moscow state was declared the political and spiritual successor of Byzantium. This found its expression both in the slogan: "Moscow is the Third Rome" (after Rome and the "Second Rome" - Constantinople), and in the borrowing of Byzantine symbols and symbols of power:

Coat of arms of the Palaiologos family - the double-headed eagle was taken as the coat of arms of the newly formed Russian (Moscow) state;
Gradually, a new name for the country was borrowed from Byzantium - Russia (Russia is the Byzantine version of the name Rus; in the Byzantine language, for ease of pronunciation, the letter “y” in the name of the countries was changed to “o” and the ending “-iya” (-ia) was added), for example, Romania sounded like Romania, Bulgar like Bulgaria, Rus like Russia).

In honor of the overthrow of the Mongol-Tatar yoke under Ivan III, construction began on the symbol of power - the Moscow Kremlin. According to the plan of Ivan III, the Kremlin was to become the residence of future Russian sovereigns and should embody greatness and sovereignty. The project of the Italian architect Aristotle Fiorovanti was taken as the basis, according to which, instead of the old white stone, the main part of the modern Moscow Kremlin was built of red brick. Also under Ivan III in 1497, the Sudebnik was adopted - the first code of laws of an independent Russian state. This Code of Laws legalized:

unified system of state bodies;
unified system of government;
the right of peasants to change landlords ("Yuryev's day").

During the reign of Ivan III, the expansion of the territory of Russia to the east began. Yes, in the 80s and 90s. 15th century vast areas were mastered up to the Urals and the Arctic Ocean, as a result of which, under Ivan III, the territory of the Moscow State increased 6 times.

Ivan III died in 1505, leaving behind a strong, prosperous and independent state.

When historians analyze the reasons for the success of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, they name the presence of a powerful khan in power among the most important and significant reasons. Often, the khan became the personification of strength and military power, and therefore he was feared by both the Russian princes and representatives of the yoke itself. What khans left their mark on history and were considered the most powerful rulers of their people.

The most powerful khans of the Mongol yoke

During the entire existence of the Mongol Empire and the Golden Horde, many khans have changed on the throne. Especially often the rulers changed during the great zamyatne, when the crisis forced the brother to go against the brother. Various internecine wars and regular military campaigns confused the family tree of the Mongol khans a lot, but the names of the most powerful rulers are still known. So, which khans of the Mongol Empire were considered the most powerful?

Genghis Khan because of the mass of successful campaigns and the unification of lands into one state.
Batu, who managed to completely subjugate Ancient Russia and form the Golden Horde.
Khan Uzbek, under whom the Golden Horde reached its greatest power.
Mamai, who managed to unite the troops during the great memorial.
Khan Tokhtamysh, who made successful campaigns against Moscow, and returned Ancient Russia to the forced territories.

Each ruler deserves special attention, because his contribution to the history of the development of the Tatar-Mongol yoke is huge. However, it is much more interesting to tell about all the rulers of the yoke, trying to restore the family tree of the khans.

Tatar-Mongol khans and their role in the history of the yoke

The name and years of the reign of the Khan	His role in history
Genghis Khan (1206-1227)	And before Genghis Khan, the Mongol yoke had its own rulers, but it was this khan who managed to unite all the lands and make surprisingly successful campaigns against China, North Asia and against the Tatars.
Ogedei (1229-1241)	Genghis Khan tried to give all his sons the opportunity to rule, so he divided the empire between them, but it was Ogedei who was his main heir. The ruler continued his expansion into Central Asia and Northern China, strengthening his position in Europe as well.
Batu (1227-1255)	Batu was only the ruler of the ulus of Jochi, which later received the name of the Golden Horde. However, the successful Western campaign, the expansion of Ancient Russia and Poland, was made from Batu national hero. Soon he began to spread his sphere of influence over the entire territory of the Mongolian state, becoming an increasingly authoritative ruler.
Berke (1257-1266)	It was during the reign of Berke that the Golden Horde almost completely separated from the Mongol Empire. The ruler focused on urban planning, improving the social status of citizens.
Mengu-Timur (1266-1282), Tuda-Mengu (1282-1287), Tula-Bugi (1287-1291)	These rulers did not leave a big mark on history, but they were able to isolate the Golden Horde even more and defend its rights to freedom from the Mongol Empire. The basis of the economy of the Golden Horde was a tribute from the princes of Ancient Russia.
Khan Uzbek (1312-1341) and Khan Janibek (1342-1357)	Under Khan Uzbek and his son Dzhanibek, the Golden Horde flourished. The offerings of the Russian princes were regularly increased, urban planning continued, and the inhabitants of Sarai-Batu adored their khan and literally worshiped him.
Mamai (1359-1381)	Mamai had nothing to do with the legitimate rulers of the Golden Horde and had no connection with them. He seized power in the country by force, seeking new economic reforms and military victories. Despite the fact that Mamai's power was growing stronger every day, problems in the state were growing due to conflicts on the throne. As a result, in 1380 Mamai suffered a crushing defeat from the Russian troops on the Kulikovo field, and in 1381 he was overthrown by the legitimate ruler Tokhtamysh.
Tokhtamysh (1380-1395)	Perhaps the last great khan of the Golden Horde. After the crushing defeat of Mamai, he managed to regain his status in Ancient Russia. After the march on Moscow in 1382, tribute payments resumed, and Tokhtamysh proved his superiority in power.
Kadir Berdi (1419), Hadji-Muhammed (1420-1427), Ulu-Muhammed (1428-1432), Kichi-Muhammed (1432-1459)	All these rulers tried to establish their power during the period of the state collapse of the Golden Horde. After the beginning of the internal political crisis, many rulers changed, and this also affected the deterioration of the country's situation. As a result, in 1480, Ivan III managed to achieve the independence of Ancient Russia, throwing off the shackles of centuries of tribute.

As often happens, a great state falls apart due to a dynastic crisis. A few decades after the liberation of Ancient Russia from the hegemony of the Mongol yoke, the Russian rulers also had to go through their dynastic crisis, but that's a completely different story.