Who burned the capital of the Golden Horde. The reign of the golden horde

In 1483, the Golden Horde fell - the largest state of Eurasia, which for two and a half centuries terrified all the peoples adjacent to it and bound Russia with the chains of the Tatar-Mongol yoke. This event, which influenced the entire future fate of our Motherland, was of such great importance that it should be discussed in more detail.

Ulus Jochi

The works of many Russian historians are devoted to this issue, among which the monograph by Grekov and Yakubovsky “The Golden Horde and Its Fall” is very popular with readers. In order to more fully and objectively cover the topic of interest to us, we will, in addition to the works of other authors, use this very interesting and informative book.

From the historical documents that have come down to us, it is known that the term "Golden Horde" came into use no earlier than 1566, that is, more than a hundred years after the death of this state itself, which had the name Ulus Jochi. The first part of it is translated as "people" or "state", while the second is the name of the elder, and that's why.

Conqueror's son

The fact is that once the territory of the Golden Horde was part of a single Mongol Empire with the capital Karakorum. Its creator and ruler was the famous Genghis Khan, who united various Turkic tribes under his rule and terrified the world with countless conquests. However, in 1224, feeling the onset of old age, he divided his state between his sons, providing each with power and wealth.

He handed over most of the territory to his eldest son, whose name was Jochi Batu, and his name entered the name of the newly created khanate, which was subsequently significantly expanded and went down in history as the Golden Horde. The fall of this state was preceded by two and a half centuries of prosperity based on the blood and suffering of enslaved peoples.

Having become the founder and first ruler of the Golden Horde, Jochi Batu entered our history under the slightly changed name of Batu Khan, who in 1237 left his cavalry to conquer the vast expanses of Russia. But before he ventured on this very risky enterprise, he needed complete freedom from the guardianship of his formidable parent.

Father's successor

After the death of Genghis Khan, which followed in 1227, Jochi gained independence and multiplied his wealth with several victorious, but very exhausting campaigns, and also expanded the territories he inherited. Only after that, Batu Khan, feeling ready for new conquests, launched a blow to the Volga Bulgaria, and then subjugated the tribes of the Polovtsians and Alans. Russia was next in line.

In their monograph The Golden Horde and Its Fall, Yakubovsky and Grekov point out that it was in the battles with the Russian princes that the Tatar-Mongols exhausted their forces to such an extent that they were forced to abandon the previously planned campaign against the Duke of Austria and the King of Czech. Thus, Russia unwittingly became the savior Western Europe from the invasion of the hordes of Batu Khan.

During his reign, which lasted until 1256, the founder of the Golden Horde made conquests of unprecedented scale, conquering a significant part of the territory of modern Russia. The only exceptions were Siberia, the Far East and the regions of the Far North. In addition, Ukraine, which surrendered without a fight, as well as Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan, fell under his rule. In that era, hardly anyone could admit the possibility of a future fall of the Golden Horde, so much so that the empire created by the son of Genghis Khan must have seemed unshakable and eternal. However, this is not an isolated example in history.

Greatness that has sunk into centuries

To match the state was its capital, called Sarai-Batu. Located about ten kilometers north of modern Astrakhan, it amazed foreigners who entered it with the luxury of palaces and the polyphony of oriental bazaars. Newcomers, especially Russians, often appeared in it, but not at will. Until the fall of the Golden Horde in Russia, this city was a symbol of slavery. Crowds of captives were brought here to the slave markets after regular raids, and Russian princes also came here to receive khan's labels, without which their power was considered invalid.

How did it happen that the khanate that conquered half the world suddenly ceased to exist and sank into oblivion, leaving no traces of its former greatness? The date of the fall of the Golden Horde can hardly be called without a certain degree of conventionality. It is generally accepted that this happened shortly after the death of her last khan Akhmat, who undertook an unsuccessful campaign against Moscow in 1480. His long and inglorious standing on the Ugra River was the end of the Tatar-Mongol yoke. The following year, he was killed, and the heirs could not keep intact the possessions they inherited. However, let's talk about everything in order.

The beginning of the great turmoil

It is generally accepted that the history of the fall of the Golden Horde dates back to 1357, when its ruler from the Genghisides family (direct descendants of Dzhanibek) died. After him, the state plunged into chaos caused by a bloody struggle for power between dozens of applicants. a four-year period was replaced by 25 supreme rulers.

To top it off, the separatist sentiments that existed among the local khans, who dreamed of complete independence on their lands, took on a very dangerous character. Khorezm was the first to separate from the Golden Horde, and soon Astrakhan followed suit. The situation was aggravated by the Lithuanians, who invaded from the west and seized large territories adjacent to the banks of the Dnieper. It was a crushing and, importantly, not the last blow received by the previously united and powerful khanate. Following them, other misfortunes followed, after which there was no longer enough strength to recover.

Confrontation between Mamai and Tokhtamysh

Relative stability in the state was established only in 1361, when, as a result of a long struggle and different kind intrigues, power in it was seized by a major Horde commander (temnik) Mamai. He managed to put an end to the strife for a while, streamline the flow of tribute from previously conquered territories and raise the shaken military potential.

However, he also had to wage an unceasing struggle against internal enemies, the most dangerous among whom was Khan Tokhtamysh, who was trying to assert his power in the Golden Horde. In 1377, with the support of the Central Asian ruler Tamerlane, he launched a military campaign against the troops of Mamai and achieved significant success, capturing almost the entire territory of the state up to the Northern Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov, leaving only the Crimea and the Polovtsian steppes to his opponent.

Despite the fact that in 1380 Mamai was already, in fact, a "political corpse", the defeat of his troops in the Battle of Kulikovo dealt a strong blow to the Golden Horde. The militarily successful campaign of Khan Tokhtamysh himself against Moscow, undertaken two years later, could not correct the situation. The fall of the Golden Horde, previously accelerated by the separation of many of its remote territories, and in particular by the Ulus Orda-Janin, which occupied almost the entire territory of its eastern wing, became inevitable and was only a matter of time. But at that time it still represented a single and viable state.

Big Horde

This picture changed radically in the first half of the next century, when, as a result of the strengthening of separatist tendencies, independent states arose on its territory: the Siberian, Kazan, Uzbek, Crimean, Nogai, and a little later the Kazakh Khanate.

Their formal center was the last island of the once boundless state, called the Golden Horde. Now, when its former greatness has irretrievably gone, it has become the seat of the khan, who is only conditionally endowed with supreme power. Its formidable name is also a thing of the past, giving way to a rather vague phrase - the Great Horde.

The final fall of the Golden Horde, the course of events

In traditional Russian historiography, the final stage of the existence of this, once the largest Eurasian state, is attributed to the second half of the 15th - early 16th centuries. As can be seen from the above story, it was the result of a long process, the beginning of which was laid by a fierce struggle for power between the most powerful and influential khans who ruled over parts of the state. Played an important role and separatist sentiment, strengthened year by year in the circles of the ruling elite. All this eventually led to the fall of the Golden Horde. Briefly describe his "death agony" can be as follows.

In July 1472, the ruler of the Great (formerly Golden) Horde, Khan Akhmat, suffered a severe defeat from the Grand Duke of Moscow Ivan III. It happened in the battle on the banks of the Oka, after the Tatars plundered and burned the nearby city of Aleksin. Encouraged by the victory, the Russians stopped paying tribute.

Khan Akhmat's campaign against Moscow

Having received such a tangible blow to his prestige and, moreover, having lost most of his income, the khan dreamed of revenge and in 1480, having gathered a large army and concluded a preliminary alliance agreement with the Grand Duke of Lithuania Casimir IV, he marched on Moscow. Akhmat's goal was to bring the Russians into their former obedience and resume their payment of tribute. It is possible that if he had succeeded in carrying out his intentions, then the year of the fall of the Golden Horde could have been postponed for several decades, but fate would have decreed otherwise.

Having passed the territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania with the help of local guides and reaching the Ugra River - the left tributary of the Oka, flowing through the territories of the Smolensk and Kaluga regions - the khan, to his chagrin, found that he had been deceived by the allies. Casimir IV, contrary to his obligation, did not send military assistance to the Tatars, and used all the forces at his disposal to solve his own problems.

Inglourious retreat and the death of Khan

Left alone, on October 8, Khan Akhmat made an attempt to cross the river on his own and continue the attack on Moscow, but was stopped by the Russian troops stationed on the opposite bank. The subsequent sorties of his soldiers were not crowned with success. Meanwhile, it was urgently necessary to find a way out of this situation, since winter was approaching, and with it the inevitable in such cases, starvation, extremely fatal for horses. In addition, food supplies for people were also running out, and there was nowhere to replenish them, since everything around had long been looted and destroyed.

As a result, the Horde were forced to abandon their plans and shamefully retreat. On the way back, they burned several Lithuanian cities, but it was just revenge on Prince Casimir who had deceived them. From now on, the Russians were out of their obedience, and the loss of so many tributaries hastened the already inevitable fall of the Golden Horde. The date November 11, 1480 - the day when Khan Akhmat decided to retreat from the banks of the Ugra - went down in history as the end of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, which lasted almost two and a half centuries.

As for the last ruler of the Golden (at that time only the Great) Horde, who himself became the will of fate, he would soon have to leave this mortal world. At the beginning next year he was killed during a raid on his headquarters by a detachment of Nogai cavalry. Like most eastern rulers, Khan Akhmat had many wives and, accordingly, a large number of sons, but none of them could prevent the death of the khanate, which happened, as is commonly believed, at the beginning of the next - XV century.

Consequences of the fall of the Golden Horde

Two major events late 15th and early 16th centuries. - the complete collapse of the Golden Horde and the end of the period of the Tatar-Mongol yoke - are in such close connection that they eventually led to common consequences for all previously conquered peoples, including, of course, the Russian land. First of all, the reasons that caused them to lag behind in all areas of development from the countries of Western Europe that were not subjected to the Tatar-Mongol invasion are gone.

With the fall of the Golden Horde, prerequisites appeared for the development of the economy, undermined due to the disappearance of most crafts. Many skilled craftsmen were killed or driven into slavery without passing on their skills to anyone. Because of this, the construction of cities was interrupted, as well as the production of various kinds of tools and household items. Agriculture also fell into decline, as the cultivators left their lands and went to remote regions of the North and Siberia in search of salvation. The fall of the hated Horde gave them the opportunity to return to their former places.

The revival of the national culture, which during the period of the Tatar-Mongol yoke was in the process of degradation, was also extremely important, as evidenced by the cultural and historical monuments that have survived since that time. And finally, having come out from under the rule of the Horde khans, Russia and other peoples who gained freedom gained the opportunity to resume international relations interrupted for a long period.

The Golden Horde (Ulus Jochi) is a medieval state in Eurasia.

Beginning of the era of the Golden Horde

The formation and formation of the Golden Horde begins in 1224. The state was founded by the Mongol Khan Batu, the grandson of Genghis Khan, and until 1266 was part of the Mongol Empire, after which it became independent, retaining only formal subordination to the Empire. Most of the population of the state were Volga Bulgars, Mordovians, Mari. In 1312 the Golden Horde became an Islamic state. In the 15th c. a single state broke up into several khanates, the main among which was the Great Horde. The Great Horde lasted until the middle of the 16th century, but other khanates fell apart much earlier.

The name "Golden Horde" was first used by Russians after the fall of the state, in 1556, in one of the historical works. Prior to this, the state was designated differently in different annals.

Territories of the Golden Horde

The Mongol Empire, from which the Golden Horde came, occupied territories from the Danube to the Sea of ​​Japan and from Novgorod to Southeast Asia. In 1224, Genghis Khan divided the Mongol Empire between his sons, and one of the parts went to Jochi. A few years later, the son of Jochi - Batu - undertook several military campaigns and expanded the territory of his khanate to the west, the Lower Volga region became a new center. From that moment on, the Golden Horde began to constantly capture new territories. As a result, most of modern Russia (except for the Far East, Siberia and the Far North), Kazakhstan, Ukraine, part of Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan fell under the rule of the khans of the Golden Horde during its heyday.

In the 13th c. The Mongol Empire, which seized power in Russia (), was on the verge of collapse, and Russia came under the rule of the Golden Horde. However, the Russian principalities were not directly ruled by the khans of the Golden Horde. The princes were only forced to pay tribute to the Golden Horde officials, and soon this function came under the control of the princes themselves. However, the Horde was not going to lose the conquered territories, so its troops regularly made punitive campaigns against Russia in order to keep the princes in subjection. Russia remained subject to the Golden Horde almost until the very collapse of the Horde.

State structure and control system of the Golden Horde

Since the Golden Horde emerged from the Mongol Empire, the descendants of Genghis Khan were at the head of the state. The territory of the Horde was divided into allotments (uluses), each of which had its own khan, however, smaller uluses were subordinate to one main one, where the supreme khan ruled. Ulus division was initially unstable and the borders of uluses were constantly changing.

As a result of the administrative-territorial reform at the beginning of the 14th century. the territories of the main uluses were allocated and fixed, as well as the positions of ulus managers - ulusbeks, who were subordinate to smaller officials - viziers, were introduced. In addition to the khans and ulusbeks, there was a people's assembly - kurultai, which was convened only in emergency cases.

The Golden Horde was a semi-military state, so administrative and military posts were often combined. The most important positions were held by members of the ruling dynasty who were related to the khan and owned lands; smaller administrative positions could be occupied by feudal lords middle class, and the army was recruited from the people.

The capitals of the Horde were:

• Sarai-Batu (near Astrakhan) - under the rule of Batu;
• Saray-Berke (near Volgograd) - from the first half of the 14th century.

In general, the Golden Horde was a multiform and multinational state, therefore, in addition to the capitals, there were several large centers in each of the regions. The Horde also had trading colonies on the Sea of ​​Azov.

Trade and economy of the Golden Horde

The Golden Horde was a trading state, actively engaged in buying and selling, and also had multiple trading colonies. The main goods were: fabrics, linen, weapons, jewelry and others. jewelry, furs, leather, honey, forest, grain, fish, caviar, olive oil. Trade routes to Europe, Central Asia, China and India began from the territories that belonged to the Golden Horde.

In addition, the Horde received a significant part of its income from military campaigns (robbery), the collection of tribute (the yoke in Russia) and the conquest of new territories.

End of the era of the Golden Horde

Golden Horde consisted of several uluses, subordinate to the authority of the supreme khan. After the death of Khan Janibek in 1357, the first turmoil began, caused by the lack of a single heir and the desire of the khans to compete for power. The struggle for power became the main reason for the further collapse of the Golden Horde.

In the 1360s Khorezm seceded from the state.

In 1362, Astrakhan separated, the lands on the Dnieper were captured by the Lithuanian prince.

In 1380, the Tatars were defeated by the Russians in an attempt to attack Russia.

In 1380-1395. the turmoil ceased and the power again submitted to the great khan. During this period, successful campaigns of the Tatars against Moscow were made.

However, in the late 1380s. Horde attempts were made to attack the territory of Tamerlane, which were unsuccessful. Tamerlane defeated the troops of the Horde, ruined the Volga cities. The Golden Horde received a blow, which was the beginning of the collapse of the empire.

At the beginning of the 15th century. from the Golden Horde, new khanates were formed (Siberian, Kazan, Crimean, etc.). The khanates were ruled by the Great Horde, but the dependence of new territories on it gradually weakened, and the power of the Golden Horde over Russia also weakened.

In 1480, Russia finally freed itself from the oppression of the Mongol-Tatars.

At the beginning of the 16th century. The Great Horde, left without small khanates, ceased to exist.

Kichi Muhammad was the last khan of the Golden Horde.

At what stage of education do schoolchildren usually get acquainted with the concept of the "Golden Horde"? 6th grade, of course. The history teacher tells the children how he suffered Orthodox people from foreign invaders. One gets the impression that in the thirteenth century Russia experienced the same brutal occupation as in the forties of the last century. But is it worth so blindly drawing parallels between the Third Reich and the medieval semi-nomadic state? And what did the Tatar-Mongol yoke mean for the Slavs? What was the Golden Horde for them? "History" (6th grade, textbook) is not the only source on this topic. There are other, more thorough works of researchers. Let's take an adult look at a rather long time period in the history of our native fatherland.

Beginning of the Golden Horde

For the first time, Europe became acquainted with the Mongol nomadic tribes in the first quarter of the thirteenth century. The troops of Genghis Khan reached the Adriatic and could successfully move further - to Italy and to But the dream of the great conqueror came true - the Mongols were able to scoop up water from the Western Sea with a helmet. That is why the army of many thousands returned to their steppes. For another twenty years, the Mongol Empire and feudal Europe existed without colliding in any way, as if in parallel worlds. In 1224, Genghis Khan divided his kingdom between his sons. This is how the Ulus (province) of Jochi appeared - the westernmost in the empire. If we ask ourselves what the Golden Horde is, then 1236 can be considered the starting point of this state formation. It was then that the ambitious Khan Batu (son of Jochi and grandson of Genghis Khan) began his Western campaign.

What is the Golden Horde

This military operation, which lasted from 1236 to 1242, significantly expanded the territory of the Jochi ulus to the west. However, it was still too early to talk about the Golden Horde. Ulus is an administrative unit in the great and it was dependent on the central government. However, Batu Khan (in the Russian chronicles Batu) in 1254 moved his capital to the Lower Volga region. There he established a capital. Khan founded Big City Saray-Batu (now a place near the village of Selitrennoye in the Astrakhan region). In 1251, a kurultai took place, where Mongke was elected emperor. Batu came to the capital Karakorum and supported the heir to the throne. Other pretenders were executed. Their lands were divided between Möngke and Chingizids (including Batu). The term "Golden Horde" itself appeared much later - in 1566, in the book "Kazan History", when this state itself had already ceased to exist. The self-name of this territorial entity was "Ulu Ulus", which means "Grand Duchy" in Turkic.

Years of the Golden Horde

Showing allegiance to Khan Möngke served Bat well. His ulus received greater autonomy. But the state gained full independence only after the death of Batu (1255), already during the reign of Khan Mengu-Timur, in 1266. But even then, nominal dependence on the Mongol Empire remained. This exorbitantly expanded ulus included Volga Bulgaria, Northern Khorezm, Western Siberia, Desht-i-Kipchak (steppes from the Irtysh to the Danube), the North Caucasus and Crimea. In terms of area, public education can be compared with the Roman Empire. Its southern edge was Derbent, and its northeastern limit was Isker and Tyumen in Siberia. In 1257, a brother ascended the throne of the ulus (ruled until 1266). He converted to Islam, but, most likely, for political reasons. Islam did not affect the broad masses of the Mongols, but it made it possible for the khan to attract Arab artisans and merchants from Central Asia and the Volga Bulgars to his side.

The Golden Horde reached its peak in the 14th century, when Uzbek Khan (1313-1342) ascended the throne. Under him, Islam became the state religion. After the death of Uzbek, the state began to experience an era of feudal fragmentation. The campaign of Tamerlane (1395) drove the last nail into the coffin of this great but short-lived power.

End of the Golden Horde

In the 15th century, the state collapsed. Small independent principalities appeared: the Nogai Horde (the first years of the 15th century), Kazan, Crimean, Astrakhan, Uzbek, the Central Power remained and continued to be considered supreme. But the days of the Golden Horde are over. The power of the successor became more and more nominal. This state was called the Great Horde. It was located in the Northern Black Sea region and extended to Lower Volga. The Great Horde ceased to exist only at the beginning of the sixteenth century, being absorbed

Rus and Ulus Jochi

The Slavic lands were not part of the Mongol Empire. What is the Golden Horde, the Russians could only judge by the extreme western ulus of Jochi. The rest of the empire and its metropolitan splendor remained out of sight of the Slavic princes. Their relations with the ulus of Jochi in certain periods were of a different nature - from partnership to openly slavish. But in most cases it was a typical feudal relationship between feudal lord and vassal. Russian princes came to the capital of the Jochi ulus, the city of Saray, and brought homage to the khan, receiving from him a “label” - the right to rule their state. The first to do this was in 1243. Therefore, the most influential and the first in subordination was the label on the Vladimir-Suzdal reign. From this, during the Tatar-Mongol yoke, the center of all Russian lands shifted. They became the city of Vladimir.

"Terrible" Tatar-Mongol yoke

The history textbook for the sixth grade depicts the misfortunes that the Russian people endured under the occupiers. However, not everything was so sad. The princes first used the Mongols in the fight against their enemies (or pretenders to the throne). Such military support had to be paid for. Then, at the time, the princes had to give part of their income from taxes to the khan of the Jochi ulus - their lord. This was called the "horde exit". If the payment was delayed, bakauls arrived, who collected taxes themselves. But at the same time, the Slavic princes ruled the people, and his life flowed as before.

Peoples of the Mongol Empire

If we ask ourselves the question of what the Golden Horde is from the point of view of the political system, then there is no definite answer. At first it was a semi-military and semi-nomadic union of the Mongolian tribes. Very quickly - within one or two generations - the striking force of the conquering troops assimilated among the conquered population. Already at the beginning of the XIV century, the Russians called the Horde "Tatars". The ethnographic composition of this empire was very heterogeneous. Alans, Uzbeks, Kipchaks and other nomadic or sedentary peoples lived here permanently. The khans in every way encouraged the development of trade, crafts and the construction of cities. There was no discrimination based on nationality or religion. In the capital of the ulus - Sarai - in 1261 an Orthodox bishopric was even formed, the Russian diaspora was so numerous here.