important cereal crops. Introduction to cereals

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Section III RAW MATERIALS FOR FOOD PRODUCTION

Chapter 12 BASIC RAW MATERIALS

Food production is associated with the use of various types of raw materials. At the same time, some branches of the food industry are engaged in the primary processing of raw materials (flour-grinding, sugar, starch-treacle, canning and vegetable-drying, alcohol, etc.), and some are in the secondary processing of raw materials (baking, pasta, confectionery, yeast, etc.) .

A wide range of products produced by the food industry also determines the use of a huge variety of raw materials that differ in composition and properties.

This chapter provides general characteristics, classification, conditions and shelf life of various types of raw materials used in food production.

MAIN GRAINS

Grain is the most important agricultural product. It serves as the main source of human nutrition, a food base for productive animal husbandry and a raw material for technical production. Cereal products are the main food products due to their inherent distinctive properties: the ability to synthesize a large amount of dry matter (about 85% of the total mass), to be stored under normal conditions for several years without a significant change in properties, high transportability and availability. In terms of the amount of nutrients (protein, carbohydrates, as well as minerals and B vitamins), grain processed products (flour, cereals, bread, pasta) make up about 1/3 of the human diet, providing more than half of the energy value of the daily diet.

According to the chemical composition, all cereals are divided into three groups. The first group includes grain rich in starch. This group is represented by cereals (wheat, rye, barley.

oats) and false (corn, rice, millet and buckwheat family), cereals.

The second group includes cultures rich in protein. This group includes the legume family.

The third group includes oilseeds, the seeds of which are rich in fat.

Wheat. In Russia, mainly two types of wheat are cultivated - soft and hard, with preference given to soft, they account for more than 90% of crops and harvests for a long time. In terms of sowing, it can be spring and winter. Both spring and winter soft wheat are widespread.

In soft wheat, the grain is round, with a clearly visible beard (pubescence at the end of the grain opposite the germ), with a pronounced deep groove running along the grain. The ratio of grain length to its width is 2:1. The grain color of soft red-grain wheat is reddish-brown in different shades, in white-grain wheat it is light yellow. The consistency of the grain is different: more often the endosperm is partially vitreous and farinaceous, less often it is vitreous.

Soft wheat according to technological (flour-grinding and baking) advantages is divided into three groups - strong, medium and weak. Strong is called wheat of certain varieties, which has a grain with a high (at least 14% DM) protein content, with a glassiness of at least 60%. Flour from such wheat forms an elastic-plastic, non-liquefying dough;

Weak is a benign wheat, characterized by a low protein content (less than 11% DM), mostly mealy (glassiness less than 40%). Weak wheat has low baking qualities. The dough made from such flour during fermentation quickly deteriorates its structural and mechanical properties, becomes sticky, smearing, and the bread is of unsatisfactory quality with low volume and coarse porosity. Strong wheats are used as improvers for weak wheats. At the same time, flour is obtained from weak wheat, which is quite suitable for the production of flour confectionery.

Medium wheat - the most common wheat, in its properties occupies an intermediate position between strong and weak. It has good baking properties, but it cannot effectively improve weak wheat.

Durum wheat differs significantly from soft wheat: it resists shedding much better, lodges less under the influence of winds and rains, since its straw has thicker and stronger walls. In terms of yield, durum wheat is inferior to soft (winter) varieties. The grain of durum wheat is larger than that of soft wheat, the beard is poorly developed and is not visible to the naked eye. The color of the grain is yellow, the vitreousness is quite high (up to 90...100%). The most common are predominantly spring forms of durum wheat. I don’t divide durum wheat into groups according to baking properties!’. The grain of this wheat in its pure form has low baking qualities, bread is obtained in a small volume and with a dense crumb. Gluten durum wheat is characterized by high elasticity and low extensibility. The main purpose of durum wheat is to obtain from them pasta. For making pasta good quality Some varieties of spring soft wheat are also suitable, characterized by high vitreousness (at least 60%) and a high protein content.

Of all -cereal crops, wheat has the highest protein content (9.2 ... 26.8%), but it is incomplete due to a deficiency of lysine and methionine. The protein content in spring wheat is higher, respectively, the proportion of starch is lower than in winter wheat. There is a pattern in the accumulation of protein substances by grain of wheat: the amount of protein increases as this crop moves from west to east and from north to south. Hard wheats are characterized by a higher content of protein, sugar, minerals and carotenoids than soft ones.

Rye. Rye is the second most important grain crop after wheat. This is mainly a winter crop, it has valuable qualities: it is undemanding to soil and climatic conditions, it is characterized by early maturity, high yield and winter hardiness.

The shape, structure and chemical composition of rye grains have their own characteristics. The narrow and long grain of rye (the ratio of the length of the grain to its width is 3.5: 1) is distinguished by a smaller mass and a larger specific surface than the grain of wheat; therefore, it has more membranes, an aleurone layer, a larger embryo, and a smaller proportion of endosperm. Shells with an aleurone layer make up about 20%, the embryo - 3.7% of the grain mass. In view of this, less sorghum flour can be obtained from rye than from wheat. The color of rye grains is often gray-green, the endosperm is usually farinaceous, less often glassy. The total vitreousness of rye grain is 30...40%.

Compared to wheat, rye contains less protein (9-20% on average), but rye proteins are more complete. Rye is also more useful in terms of its mineral composition: the content of potassium, magnesium and calcium in it is greater than in wheat. According to the properties of protein substances and starch, these cultures differ significantly from each other. Rye proteins are capable of unlimited swelling; under normal conditions, they do not form gluten. Rye starch is characterized by a lower temperature of keisterization, rye grain contains a- and p-amylases, unlike wheat, in which only β-amylase is present, therefore

starch in the preparation of rye bread is more easily hydrolyzed and Rye bread stale more slowly than wheat. Rye grain contains almost twice as much sugar (maltose, glucose, sucrose) than wheat, and relatively many mucous substances (up to 2.8%) - The latter are high-molecular polysaccharides and have the ability to absorb large amounts of water, forming viscous colloidal solutions. These substances. affect the properties of dough and bread from rye flour: the dough and crumb of such bread are more sticky, the crumb of bread is more moist than that of wheat.

Rye is used to produce flour and malt.

Barley. In our country, it ranks second after wheat in terms of grain production. Barley can be winter and spring, but mainly spring varieties are grown, which are distinguished by a short growing season (70 days). The grain of barley is filmy, the share of films accounts for 9 ... 14% of the mass of the grain. Under the flower films are thinner than in wheat grain, fruit and seed coats, which, like flower films, include fiber and pentoses. The aleurone layer consists of 2-3 rows of large thick-walled cells. This structure of the aleurone layer affects the high strength of the grain and the increased content of fiber and minerals in barley flour and groats. The endosperm of barley can be mealy, semi-vitreous and vitreous. In terms of protein content (7 ... 25%) and sugars, barley occupies an intermediate position between wheat and rye. Barley proteins, although slightly, are more complete than wheat proteins. From the flour of some varieties of barley, using warm water, wash the short-corrupted gray gluten. The shells and films of barley contain bitter and tannins, therefore, when receiving cereals, they try to get rid of them.

Barley is used for various purposes: making flour, cereals, beer, malt, alcohol, malt extracts and barley coffee. For making bread, barley is used in those regions (northern or otherwise) where the cultivation of other cereals is difficult. Bread from such grains is of poor quality; it quickly becomes stale, so it is better to use barley flour as an additive to wheat flour. For the production of flour and cereals, glassy or semi-steuy barley is used, and mealy barley is used to produce beer.

Oats. -This crop is food and fodder. Oats are characterized by precocity, their grain is narrow and long, membranous, white or yellow in color, has pubescence covering its entire surface. Floral films are thick. The composition of oats includes fiber, pentosans and minerals, the content of which is 25 ... 43% of the grain mass. The endosperm of oats is white, mealy, contains a lot of fiber. Very small

Among field crops, grain crops are the most important, providing the main human food product - grain. Crops include wheat, rye, barley, oats, triticale, rice, millet, corn, sorghum and buckwheat.

In world agriculture, grain crops occupy a leading place, they are cultivated almost everywhere and are of paramount importance for the population of the entire the globe, which is associated with their great value and diverse uses. Grain contains the necessary nutrients - proteins, carbohydrates, fats. Cereals are widely used in animal husbandry as a concentrated feed in the form of grain (barley, oats, triticale, corn) and bran (grain processing waste). Straw and chaff are also used to feed animals. Grain serves as a raw material for many industries (starch-treacle, dextrin, brewing, alcohol) and for the production of biofuels.

A high level of grain production makes it possible to successfully solve the grain problem, provide the population with a variety of food products, develop animal husbandry and increase its productivity, create state grain reserves and ensure the country's food security.

Much attention is paid to increasing grain production - high-performance machinery, new highly productive plant varieties, mineral and organic fertilizers, means of protecting crops from diseases and pests are being introduced, which can significantly increase the yield and gross harvest of wheat grain, especially hard and strong varieties, cereals and buckwheat. . The task is to meet the country's growing needs for high-quality food and fodder grain in the coming years.

Botanical description. Cereal crops (except buckwheat) belong to the bluegrass family ( Roaseae) (or cereals ( Sgatteae)). Buckwheat belongs to the buckwheat family ( Ro1 %dangerous). In terms of structure and development, they have much in common. Consider their morphological differences.

root system in grain breads it is fibrous, consists of separate roots and a large number root hairs extending in bundles (lobes) from underground nodes. According to morphological, biological features and cultivation technology, they have much in common. During the germination of the grain, germinal (primary) roots are first formed. Their number is different for different breads: winter wheat- more often 3, in spring - 5, in oats - 3-4, in barley - 5-8, in triticale - 3-5, in millet, corn, sorghum, rice - 1. Due to geotropism, germinal roots grow down, and coleoptile - up, regardless of the position of the seed in the soil. The germinal roots do not die off, and in dry years only they supply water and nutrients to plants. Nodal (secondary) roots are formed from underground stem nodes; which make up the bulk of the root system of crops and play an important role in plant life.

In high-stemmed grains (corn, sorghum), roots often develop from stem nodes closest to the soil surface - these are the so-called supporting, or aerial, roots, they also help provide plants with moisture and increase the resistance of plants to lodging.

As plants grow and develop, the root system lengthens and penetrates to a depth of 100-120 cm or more, branches out and penetrates the soil in all directions. However, their bulk (75-90%) is located in the arable soil layer at a depth of 20-25 cm, where aerobic processes are most active. Plants use their roots to take water and nutrients from the soil and supply them to other parts of the plant.

The stem of cereal crops is a cylindrical culm. In most breads, it is hollow, in corn and sorghum it is filled with parenchyma, consists of 5-7 internodes separated by nodes (partitions). In late-ripening varieties of corn, the number of internodes reaches 23-25. Stem growth occurs as a result of lengthening of all internodes. The lower internode is the first to move into growth, then the subsequent ones, which overtake the lower internodes in growth. This growth is called intercalary, or intercalary. The length of the first internode is small and ranges from 1.5 to 5 cm. The length of the second is 1.5-2.5 times longer than the first and reaches 5-10 cm. The longest upper internode is up to 35-40 cm. , forming secondary roots and lateral stem shoots from the lower underground nodes.

The leaf consists (Fig. 4.1) of the vagina (a) and leaf blade (d). The vagina is attached to the stem in the lower part and covers it in the form of a tube. At the point of transition of the vagina into the leaf blade, there is a thin translucent film called the uvula. (v), or ligula. The tongue fits snugly against the stem and prevents the penetration of water and pests into the inside of the leaf moisture.

Rice. 4.1.

7 - barley; 2 - oats; 3 - rye; 4 - wheat

foxes. On both sides of the tongue there are two semilunar ears ( auricula) (b), covering the stem and fixing the sheath on the stem. The size and shape of the tongue and ears are different for different grain crops and are systematic features in determining the breads of group I in the tillering and booting phases.

In wheat, triticale, rye and barley, the tongue is short, in oats it is strongly developed; in wheat and triticale, the ears are small, clearly defined, with cilia; in rye they are short, without cilia, fall off early; barley is strongly developed, without cilia, crescent-shaped; oats are absent.

The size and number of leaves vary depending on the crop, variety and growing conditions.

There are two types of inflorescence in cereal crops: a complex ear in wheat, rye, triticale and barley; panicle in oats, millet, rice; panicle with male flowers and in the axils of the leaves, cobs with female flowers in corn.

An ear consists of a spike rod and spikelets located on its ledges (Fig. 4.2).

The wide side of the rod is called the front, the narrow side is called the side. Wheat, rye, and triticale have one spike, usually two- or many-flowered, on each ledge of the spike rod. In barley, on each ledge of the spike rod, there are three single-flowered spikelets. In multi-row barley, a grain is formed in each spikelet,

Rice. 4.2.

a- spikelet scales; b- outer lemma; v- inner lemma; g - stamens; d- stigma; e - ovary; g - lodicula;

I - spikelet; II - diagram of the structure of the spikelet; III - pistil and lodicula

in two-row - only in the middle spikelet, two lateral spikelets are reduced (underdeveloped).

The panicle has a central axis with nodes and internodes. In the nodes, lateral branches are formed, which, in turn, can branch and thus create branches of the first, second, third and other orders. At the ends of each branch sits a single or many-flowered spikelet. In wheat, triticale, oats, spikelets are multi-flowered, in rye - two-flowered, in millet, rice and sorghum - one-flowered.

The flower consists of two floral scales: the lower, or outer, and the inner (upper). In spinous forms, the outer lemma ends with an awn. Between the lemmas are generative organs: female - a pistil with an ovary and a two-lobed stigma, and male - stamens (there are six in rice, three in other crops) with a two-celled anther. At the base of each flower, between the lemmas and the ovary, there are two delicate films - lo-dicula, when the flower swells, the flower opens.

The fruit of cereals is a single-seeded caryopsis, commonly referred to as grain. A caryopsis consists of an embryo, endosperm, and seed and fruit coats fused with them (Fig. 4.3).

Rice. 4.3. The structure of a grain of wheat

• (scheme):
  • 1,2 - fruit shells; 3, 4 - seed coats; 5 - aleurone layer of endosperm; b - shield; 7 - kidney; 8 - embryo; 9 - rudimentary root; 10 - endosperm; 11 - crest

In filmy breads (oats, millet, rice, sorghum), the caryopsis is covered with flowering scales (shells), and in barley they grow together with the caryopsis, in the rest they tightly fit the caryopsis without growing together with it.

At the base of the grain on the convex (dorsal) side there is an embryo, in the upper part - a tuft (in wheat, rye, triticale, oats). germ with inside covered by a shield that connects it to the endosperm. The embryo consists of a bud covered with rudimentary leaves, a primary stem and root, forming the rudiments of a future plant. The share of the germ is in wheat, rye, barley 2-2.5, triticale 2.5-3, in oats 3-3.5, in corn up to 12% of the weight of the grain. The rest of the grain (70-85%) is represented by endosperm - reserve nutrients. The layer of endosperm, located under the shell and consisting of one row of cells (3-5 in barley), is called aleurone. Its cells do not contain starch, but are very rich in proteins and enzymes that promote grain germination. Under the aleurone layer is the main part of the endosperm, consisting of cells with starch grains. The gaps between them are filled with proteins. The fruit and seed coats protect the grain from the effects of external conditions and from various pathogens of fungal diseases, pests and make up 5-7% of the weight of the grain.

The chemical composition of the grain. The composition of grain crops includes water, organic and mineral substances (Table 4.1), as well as enzymes and vitamins.

Nitrogenous substances - the most important component of cereal grains, consisting mainly of proteins. In terms of calories, they surpass starch, sugar and are second only to vegetable fats.

Table 4.1

The chemical composition of cereal grains

culture
Triticale
Corn

Squirrels, insoluble in water, are called gluten, or gluten. Gluten is a clot of protein substances remaining after washing the dough from starch and other components. According to the ability of proteins to dissolve in a particular solvent, they are divided into four groups: 1) albumins, soluble in water; 2) globulins, soluble in saline solutions; 3) glutenins, soluble in alkaline solutions; 4) gliadins, soluble in alcohol solutions. The most valuable are gliadins and glutenins, the quality of gluten depends on the ratio between them. The best ratio of glia-din to glutenin for baking is 1:1. In addition to proteins, gluten contains small amounts of starch, fat and other substances. The taste and baking properties of flour depend on the quality of gluten. Good gluten has the ability to stretch in length and, without tearing, to resist stretching. The baking quality of wheat gluten is better than that of rye and triticale.

The nutritional and feed advantages of proteins are determined by the content and ratio of amino acids in them (Table 4.2). The most valuable are essential amino acids (valine, lysine, tryptophan, etc.), which cannot be synthesized in the body of humans and animals, but enter it only with food and feed.

Nitrogen free extractives represented mainly by starch, most of which is contained in the endosperm (about 80% of all carbohydrates); the rest is accounted for by soluble carbohydrates - sugars, which are mainly in the germ. The content of starch in the grain increases as the wheat moves west and north, and protein as you move south and east.

Fat is a high-energy substance used in respiration and in the germination of the embryo. The fat content in the grain is 2-6%. Its greatest amount is contained in the germ and aleurone layer (in wheat and triticale about 14%, in rye and barley 12.5%). The highest fat content in the germ of corn - 40%, oats - 26% and millet - 20%. The increased fat content in flour and cereals can cause them to go rancid. Therefore, before grinding, the germs are removed from the corn grain and used to produce edible oil.

Cellulose. Its main part is located in the shells of the grain, and the highest content is noted in the grain of membranous crops with flowering scales (barley, oats, rice, millet).

Enzymes- organic compounds that play an important role in the conversion of seed reserve nutrients into a form digestible for the germinating embryo, for example, amylase breaks down starch, lipase breaks down fats, etc.

Vitamins. Cereal grains contain mainly vitamins A, B, B 2 , C, O, PP, E. Their absence or deficiency in the body disrupts metabolism and causes beriberi.

Distinctive characteristics of grain crops. Cereal crops are divided into two groups according to morphological characteristics and biological features.

Bread group I belong to the bluegrass family ( Roaseae) and include wheat, rye, triticale, barley and oats. Plants of this group are characterized by the following features: inflorescence -

Amino acid			Triticale			Corn
Histidine
Aspartic
Glutamine
Methionine
Isoleucine
Phenylalanine
tryptophan

an ear (for oats - a panicle), a fruit - a grain with a longitudinal groove, a stalk - a straw, usually hollow; the root system is fibrous, the grain sprouts with several roots. Winter and spring plants are less demanding on heat, but need moisture, they are long-day plants.

Bread group II also belong to the bluegrass family, these are corn, millet, sorghum, rice and chumiza. Distinctive features of plants of this group: inflorescence - panicle (in corn, the female inflorescence is the cob, the male inflorescence is the panicle), the stem is a straw with a made core; the root system is fibrous, the grain sprouts in one root; the fruit is a caryopsis, the groove is absent. This group is represented only by spring forms, plants are demanding for heat and light, drought-resistant (except for rice), and belong to short-day plants.

Cultivated grain crops differ significantly in their response to day length, the type of development and growth pattern, the length of the growing season, etc. According to their reaction to day length, grain crops are divided into short and long day plants. In plants of a short day (bread of group II), accelerated flowering and ripening are observed at a day length of 10 hours, in plants of a long day (bread of group I) - with a day length of 14-16 hours.

By the duration of the growing season, they are divided into plants with a short growing season - 60-80 days (barley, millet, buckwheat, etc.); with an average growing season - 90-100 days (triticale, spring wheat, oats, etc.) and a long growing season - 120-140 days (corn, rice, etc.). The duration of the growing season is greatly influenced by soil and climatic conditions, characteristics of the variety and other factors.

In grain crops, the following biological forms are distinguished: winter, spring and two-handled. Winter - these are breads that require low temperatures (-1-+10°C) for 20-50 days to pass the vernalization stage in the initial period of development. Therefore, they are sown in autumn 50-60 days before the onset of stable frosts, and the crop is obtained next year. When sown in spring, the plants tend to bush and do not form a stem and an ear.

Spring forms require higher temperatures (5-20°C) for 7-20 days to pass through the vernalization stage, so they are sown in spring and harvested in the same year.

Two-handles go through the stage of vernalization at a temperature of 3-15°C for 10-15 days. In the southern regions of the country there are varieties that grow and develop normally, yielding crops during spring and autumn sowings.

Growth and development of grain crops. In the process of individual growth and development, grain crops go through a number of phenological phases and stages of organogenesis, each of which is characterized by the formation of new organs and a number of external morphological features. Growth - is the accumulation of dry biomass. Developed - this is the formation of new specialized organs and parts of plants to perform their main and important function in the formation of grain and yield. In the life cycle of plants, F.M. Kuperman established 12 stages of organogenesis (Table 4.3).

Growth phases, stages of organogenesis and formation of wheat productivity elements (according to Kuperman and Semenov)

Table 4.3

	Stages of organogenesis	Productivity indicators	Agrotechnical care practices
Germination seedlings. Third leaf, tillering	I. Differentiation and growth of germinal organs II. Differentiation of the base of the cone into rudimentary nodes, internodes and stem leaves III. Differentiation of the main axes of the embryonic inflorescence	Field germination, plant density. Plant habit (height, number of leaves), tillering coefficient	Rolling, harrowing until emergence or by shoots. Herbicide treatment before germination. Top dressing. Protection against weeds, pests, diseases, snow mold
Beginning of the call	IV. Formation of growth cones of the second order (spikelet tubercles)	Number of segments spiked Number of spikelets	top dressing Protection from pests, diseases and lodging
Exit to the tube - the beginning of stalking	V. Bookmark of integumentary organs flower, stamen and pestles VI. Inflorescence and flower formation (micro- and macrosporogenesis) VII. Gametophytogenesis, growth of integumentary organs, elongation of segments of the spike rod	Number of flowers in spikelets Flower fertility, spike density	Protection from diseases, pests and lodging. top dressing

	Stages of organogenesis	Productivity indicators	Agrotechnical care practices
heading	VIII. Gametogenesis, the completion of the processes of formation of all organs of the inflorescence		Foliar fertilization with nitrogen, pest and disease protection
Bloom	IX. Fertilization and zygote formation X. Growth and formation of grains	graininess Grain size
Pouring grain. Dairy pasty ripeness of grain	XI. The accumulation of nutrients in the grain (seed)	Grain weight	Foliar nitrogen fertilization. Senication
wax ripeness	XII. Nutrient Transformation in reserve substances in the grain (seed)		Harvesting and post-harvest processing of grain

The Fekes scale and the Zadox code, the so-called EU code developed for cereals, have become more widely used internationally. Today in Europe, an extended scale (BBCC code) has been adopted and used to establish the stages of plant development, the basis of which are the signs that arise when new organs are formed in them. In their development from sowing seeds to the formation of a new grain, grain crops go through stages of growth and development (Table 4.4).

Table 4.4

Comparative characteristics of the stages of phenological development

grain crops

Description			according to 7abok5, (OS, EU),
	by Ku-perman
0. Germination dry seeds

Description			according to 7abok5, (OS, EU),
	by Ku-perman
Start of swelling
End of swelling
Emergence of the germinal root
The appearance of the coleoptile
The exit of the coleoptile from the soil
1. Leaf development Output of the first leaf from the coleoptile (seedlings)
First sheet unfolded
Second sheet unfolded
Third sheet unfolded
Nine leaves unfolded
2. tillering The appearance of the first tillering shoot
The appearance of the second tillering shoot
The appearance of the third tillering shoot
Eight tillering shoots
More than nine tillering shoots
3. Exit to the handset Leaf sheath goes up, stem formation
The first node is visible on the surface of the soil (beginning of the call)
The second node is visible on the surface of the soil
The third node is visible on the surface of the soil
Six nodes are visible on the surface of the soil
The appearance of the flag leaf
The leaf tongue of the flag leaf is visible

Description			according to 7abok5, (OS, EU),
	by Ku-perman
4. Swelling of inflorescences Flag leaf sheath extension
Beginning of flag leaf sheath swelling
Leaf sheath swelling
Opening of the leaf sheath
The appearance of an awn above the ligula of the flag leaf
5. The appearance of inflorescences The beginning of the appearance of the inflorescence (heading)
Appearance of 25% of inflorescences
The appearance of half of the inflorescences
Appearance of 75% of inflorescences
End of heading
6. Flowering The beginning of flowering, the appearance of the first stamens
Full bloom 50% mature stamens
End of flowering
7. Grain formation
Medium milky ripeness
Late milky ripeness, grain content is milky
8. Grain ripening Soft waxy ripeness. The dent from the nail straightens out
Solid waxy ripeness. Dent from the nail does not straighten out
9. Dying away Full ripeness
Late full ripeness. Dry straw knots

Phases of growth and development of grain crops. During the growing season, the following phases of growth and development are noted in cereal crops: germination, tillering, tube formation, heading or heading, flowering and ripening (Fig. 4.4).

The beginning of the phase is considered the day when at least 10% of the plants enter it; the full phase is noted in the presence of appropriate signs in 75% of plants. In winter crops, the first two stages of organogenesis and two phases under favorable conditions occur in autumn, the rest - in spring and summer of the next year; in spring crops - in spring and summer in the year of sowing. The germination phase is preceded by swelling and germination of seeds.

Swelling and germination of seeds(1st-2nd stages of organogenesis). In order for the seeds to germinate, they must swell, i.e. absorb a certain amount of water, which depends on their size and chemical composition. For example, rye seeds absorb 55-65% of water by weight, wheat - 47-48, triticale - 50-60, barley -

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Rice. 4.4. Phases of growth and development of wheat:

1 - seedlings; 2 - tillering; 3 - access to the handset; 4 - heading; 5 - flowering; b -

dairy; 7 - wax and 8 - full ripeness

48-57, oats - 60-75, corn - 37-44, millet and sorghum - 25-38%. To swell the seeds of grain legumes, 100-125% of water is required from their mass. When swelling in the seeds, biochemical and physiological processes occur. Under the influence of enzymes, complex chemical compounds (starch, proteins, fats, etc.) pass into simple soluble compounds. They become available for nourishment of the embryo and move into it through the scutellum. Having received nutrition, the embryo from a state of rest passes to active life. The seeds are starting to germinate. At this time, they need moisture, oxygen and certain temperature conditions.

The minimum temperatures at which seeds of grain crops can germinate are 1-2°C for group I bread (optimum 15-25°C), group II bread 8-12°C (25-30°C for optimum). Lack of moisture, low or high (above optimal) temperatures, poor air access to the soil delay seed germination and emergence of seedlings.

shoots. As the seeds swell, they begin to germinate. The germinal roots are the first to start growing, then the stem shoot (3rd stage of organogenesis). Having broken through the seed coat, in naked grains the stem appears near the shield, in membranous crops it passes under the lemma and exits at the top of the grain, starting to break through to the soil surface. From above, it is covered with a thin transparent film in the form of a case called a coleoptile. Coleoptil - modified primary sheath leaf of the plant, it protects the young stem and first leaf from mechanical damage during their growth in the soil. As soon as the stalk reaches the soil surface, under the influence of sunlight, the coleoptile stops growing and, under the pressure of the growing leaf, breaks, the first true leaf comes out. At the time of the release of the first green leaf in cereal crops, the germination phase is noted.

In 10-14 days after germination, the plants form several leaves (usually three, less often four). Along with their growth, the root system develops. By the time 3-4 leaves are formed, the germinal roots branch out and penetrate the soil to a depth of 30-35 cm, the growth of the stem and leaves temporarily stops, and a new phase of plant development begins - tillering.

tillering. Formation of shoots from underground stem nodes (3rd-4th stages). First, nodal roots develop from them, then - lateral shoots that come to the surface of the soil and grow in the same way as the main stem. The upper node of the main stem, which is located at a depth of 1-3 cm from the soil surface, where this process occurs, is called the tillering node (Fig. 4.5). Knottillering- an important organ of the plant, its damage leads to a weakening of the growth or death of the plant.

Rice. 4.5.

7 - tillering node; 2 - coleoptile; 3 - underground internode (ecotyl); 4 - germinal roots

Simultaneously with the formation of lateral shoots, a secondary root system is formed, which is located mainly in the surface layer of the soil.

The intensity of tillering depends on the growing conditions, species and varietal characteristics of grain crops.

Under favorable conditions (optimal temperature and soil moisture), the tillering period is extended, and the number of shoots increases. Under normal conditions, winter crops form 3-6 shoots, spring crops - 2-3.

Distinguish between general and productive tillering. Under general tillering understand the average number of stems per plant, regardless of the degree of their development. Productive tillering- the average number of fruiting stems per plant.

Stem shoots that formed inflorescences, but did not have time to form seeds before harvesting, are called fitting, and shoots without inflorescences - seated.

Exit to the tube. This period is characterized by the beginning of stem growth and the formation of the generative organs of the plant (stages 5-7). The beginning of the exit into the tube is considered to be such a state of plants when, at the soil surface at a height of 3-5 cm, stem nodes - tubercles are easily felt inside the leaf sheath of the main stem. During this period, the plant needs a good supply of moisture, nutrients, etc., as its accelerated growth begins.

Heading or heading. It is characterized by the appearance of an inflorescence from the upper leaf sheath (stage 8). Since during this period the leaves, the stem grow intensively and the ear (panicle) is formed, the plants make increased demands on the growing conditions.

Bloom. This phase in grain crops occurs during or shortly after heading (heading) (stages 9-10). So, in barley, flowering takes place even before full heading, when the ear has not left the leaf sheath; in wheat - after 2-3 days, in rye - after 8-10 days, in triticale - after 5-8 days after earing.

According to the method of pollination, grain breads are divided into self-pollinated and cross-pollinated. Self-pollinating include wheat, triticale, barley, oats, millet, rice; to cross-pollinated - rye, buckwheat, corn, sorghum.

Self-pollinating plants pollinated mainly with closed flowers with their pollen. Sometimes (in hot weather) the flowers open and cross (spontaneous) pollination can occur.

At cross-pollinated plants during flowering, with the help of swollen lodicula, the lemmas are moved apart and ripe anthers and stigmas of pistils appear. Pollen is transported by wind or insects. Pollination proceeds best in warm, clear weather. Under unfavorable conditions during the flowering period, seed set decreases and a through-grain is formed. In a crop such as rye, it can reach 25-30% or more, which reduces the yield.

In spike crops (wheat, rye, triticale, barley), flowering begins from the spikelets of the middle part of the ear, in paniculate crops (oats, millet, sorghum) - from the top of the panicle.

Ripeness. The process of grain formation in bread N.N. Kuleshov divides into three periods: formation, filling and maturation. I.G. Strona divided the first period into two more: formation and formation of seeds.

seed formation- the period from fertilization to the appearance of a point of growth. The seed is able to give a weak sprout. Weight of 1000 seeds - 8-12 g.

pouring- the period from the start of starch deposition in the endosperm to the termination of this process (stages 11-12) Grain moisture content decreases to 37-40%. The duration of the period is 20-25 days. The filling period is divided into four phases:

• 1) watery state - the beginning of the formation of endosperm cells. The dry matter content is 2-3% of the maximum amount. Phase duration - 6 days;
• 2) pre-dairy phase - the contents of the seed are watery with a milky tint. Dry matter is 10%. Phase duration - 6-7 days;
• 3) dairy state - the grain contains a milky white liquid. Dry matter content - 50% of the mass of mature seed. Phase duration - 7-15 days;
• 4) pasty condition - the endosperm has the consistency of dough. Dry matter is 85-90%. The duration of the phase is 4-5 days.

Maturation begins with the cessation of the flow of plastic substances.

The maturation period is divided into two phases:

• 1) wax ripeness- the endosperm is waxy, elastic, the shell of the grain acquires a yellow color. Humidity is reduced to 30-35%. The duration of the phase is 3-6 days. In this phase, two-phase (separate) cleaning is started;
• 2) firm ripeness- endosperm is hard, powdery or glassy at the break, the shell is dense, leathery, the color is typical. Humidity depending on the zone 8-22%. The duration of the phase is 3-5 days. In this phase, complex biochemical processes, after which a new and most important property of the seed appears - normal germination. Therefore, two more periods are additionally distinguished: post-harvest ripening and full ripeness.

During post-harvest ripening, the synthesis of high-molecular protein compounds ends, free fatty acids turn into fats, carbohydrate molecules become larger, and respiration fades. At the beginning of the period, seed germination is low, at the end it is normal. Its duration varies from several days to several months, depending on the characteristics of the culture and external conditions.

In a number of southern and southeastern regions of the country, grain crops during the flooding period are exposed to the action of dry winds that occur under conditions of high temperature and low humidity. The filling of grain in such conditions stops, the so-called fuse, or capture,- the grain becomes wrinkled, puny, unfulfilled, which leads to a sharp decrease in yield. The main means of combating dry winds is the expansion of field afforestation, the accumulation of moisture in the soil.

In conditions of rainy and warm weather, during the period of filling and ripening of grain, runoff(more often observed in wheat) as a result of leaching of soluble substances from the grain. Grain loses weight, its technological properties deteriorate.

In the conditions of Siberia, in some years, the period of grain ripening is delayed and the crops fall under frost, as a result of which the yield decreases and low-quality frost grain is obtained. In these areas, a reliable means of obtaining higher yields of good quality grain is the use of two-phase harvesting from the first half of wax ripeness.



Crops (family Bluegrass - Poaseae) include:

• soft wheat
• durum wheat
• barley
• triticale (a hybrid of rye and wheat)
• corn
• millet
• broom sorghum
• sorghum grain
• sugar sorghum

This group usually includes buckwheat from the buckwheat family. Millet, rice and buckwheat are called cereal crops according to their main use.

Wheat occupies the largest area of ​​cultivated land in our country; barley, oats, and rye are also cultivated on significant areas. The widespread distribution of cereals is explained by the fact that they serve as a source of necessary food products, such as bread and various cereals. In the grain of cereals, the main nutrients (protein, carbohydrates and other organic compounds) are in the most favorable ratio.
Protein contains the most grain of wheat (up to 20-21%), fat - grain of corn, millet and oats.

Grain breads play a huge role in the production of various feeds for animal husbandry: concentrated (grain of corn, barley, oats), roughage (chaff, chaff, straw), etc.

Cereals are of great value as raw materials for the production of starch, molasses, dextrin, alcohol and other products.

In Russia, a new grain fodder crop, triticale (a hybrid of wheat and rye), was obtained through breeding. Triticale grain is of sufficiently high quality and is used for fodder and food purposes. The green mass of this crop is a valuable fodder for animal husbandry.
From wheat and rye, this crop is favorably distinguished by its high resistance to adverse environmental factors.

Grain has a very high nutritional value and calorie content, it is well stored, convenient for transportation and processing. These qualities of grain were known to man in ancient times, and therefore grain crops became the basis for the development of crop production. Wheat has been known since the 7th millennium BC, rice since the 3rd millennium BC.
One of the oldest plants is corn, which the local population of America has grown since time immemorial.

In our time, more than half of the entire arable land of the globe, over 750 million hectares, is occupied by grain crops. They are grown on all continents. In the Russian Federation, more than 125 million hectares are sown with grain crops. The branch of agriculture in Russia, which is engaged in the cultivation of grain crops for grain production, is called grain farming.

The structure of cereal plants

Despite the variety of species, cereal grains share many common botanical features.

Root system of cereals

All grain cereals have a fibrous root system, spreading mainly in the arable layer of the soil (more than half of all roots are concentrated at a depth of up to 20 cm). Individual roots can penetrate to a depth of 100 cm or even more. The mass of roots is 20 - 25% of the total mass of plants. Buckwheat has a tap root system, it penetrates to great depths, but branches mainly also in the surface layer of the soil. By origin, the roots of cereals are divided into primary (or germinal) and secondary (or nodal). Secondary roots arise from underground stem nodes. In high-stemmed grain crops (corn, sorghum), supporting (aerial) roots are also formed from above-ground stem nodes.

Stem and leaves of cereal crops

The stalk of cereals is a straw, hollow or filled with a core, divided by nodes with transverse partitions into 5-6 internodes. The height of the stem is from 50 to 200 cm, while corn and sorghum have more.
The stalk of cereals is capable of bushing, i.e., forming lateral shoots that arise mainly from contiguous underground stem nodes or a tillering node.

Breeders strive to develop varieties of cereals (dwarf and semi-dwarf) with a strong and short straw to prevent lodging of plants.
In buckwheat, the stem is usually branched, 30 to 150 cm high, and reddish in color.

The leaf of cereals is linear, while that of buckwheat is arrow-shaped.
Leaves are produced at each stem node. Each leaf consists of a leaf sheath that tightly encloses the stem and protects the young growing parts, giving them greater strength, and a leaf blade.
At the base of the leaf sheath, in the place of its attachment to the stem, a thickening is formed - the leaf node. It not only attaches the leaf to the stem, but also prevents lodging of loaves. Growing from the lower shaded part, the leaf node by pressure on the stem helps to maintain its vertical position.

flower cereal plants

A cereal flower has two lemmas: outer (lower) and inner (upper). In spinous forms, the outer lemma bears an awn.

Between the lemmas are the main parts of the flower: a pistil with two pinnate stigmas, as well as three stamens (rice has six). The flowers of all cereals (except corn) are bisexual. In most cereals, they are collected in an inflorescence of a complex spike (wheat, rye, barley, triticale) or panicle (oats, sorghum, millet). Corn has two inflorescences - male flowers are collected in a panicle, female - in an ear, which is formed in the leaf axil.
Rye, corn, sorghum, buckwheat are cross-pollinating plants. Pollen is carried by the wind, and buckwheat is pollinated mainly by insects (more often bees). The rest of the crops are self-pollinating.

cereal fruit

The fruit of cereal crops, commonly called a grain, is a caryopsis in which the seed fuses with the pericarp.
The fruit of buckwheat is a trihedral nut. In agricultural production, it is also called grain.
A grain caryopsis consists of a fruit and seed coat, endosperm and embryo, where it is easy to distinguish a bud with a rudiment of leaves and a stem and primary germ roots. With the endosperm, in which all the nutrients necessary for germination and emergence of seedlings are concentrated, the embryo is connected by a shield (cotyledons). When germinating through the absorbing cells of the scutellum, the nutrients of the endosperm enter the embryo starting to grow.

The most superficial layer of the endosperm consists of cells rich in protein - this is the so-called aleurone layer. Below it are cells filled mainly with starch.
Fats are concentrated in the main germ. In some crops, such as corn, the fat content in the germ can reach 40%, so they are used to produce vegetable oil. In filmy grain crops (millet, rice) and in barley, the caryopsis is covered with glumes, and in sorghum, in addition, with spikelet glumes.

The chemical composition of grain depends on the type and variety of the plant, soil and climatic conditions, and agricultural technology. For example, in a dry hot climate, the wheat grain has an increased protein content (up to 18%), and in a zone with a temperate climate and with an abundance of precipitation, it is reduced. The protein content of the grain is 10 to 18% (sometimes higher).

Most protein in wheat, especially strong and durum varieties, less in rye, buckwheat and rice. Carbohydrates in the grain accumulates on average from 60 to 80%. It's mostly starch. Rice, rye, corn and buckwheat contain the most carbohydrates. The fat content varies. For example, in oat grain without fat films up to 7%, corn - 4%, and rice without films - only 0.4%. The amount of ash substances is also not the same: in rice grain - 0.8%, and millet - 2.7%.
The normal water content in mature grain varies between 12 - 16%.

Phases of growth and development of grain crops

The growth and development of cereals occur in phases, among which the following can be distinguished:

seedlings - the first green leaves appear on the 7th - 10th day after sowing the seeds.

tillering - after another 10 - 20 days, the first lateral shoots and secondary nodal roots appear in the plants.

Exit to the handset - 12 - 18 days after tillering, the growth of the lower internodes begins, the stem grows.

heading (panicle raising) - inflorescences appear at the top of the stems.

Bloom . As mentioned above, according to the nature of flowering, self-pollinating crops (wheat, rice, millet, oats, etc.) and cross-pollinating crops (rye, corn, sorghum) are distinguished.

Maturation - final phase. To determine the maturation or ripeness of the grain, three phases are distinguished: milky, waxy and full ripeness. In the phase of milky ripeness, the grain is soft, has a green color and contains up to 50% water.
The grain of wax ripeness dries up, turns yellow, and its contents become plastic, like wax. During this period, it can be removed in a separate way.
At full ripeness, the grain hardens, it easily spills out of the flower scales. In this phase of grain ripeness, the crop is harvested only by direct combining.



Winter and spring crops

Cereals are divided into spring and winter.

Winter bread (winter wheat, winter rye and winter barley) are sown in late summer or early autumn before the onset of persistent frosts. Harvested the following year. At the beginning of growth and development, they need low temperatures (from 0 to 10 °).

spring plants pass the initial phases of development at elevated temperatures (from 10 - 12 to 20 °), so they are sown in the spring and in the same year receive a grain crop.
Winter grains are more productive than spring grains, as they make better use of autumn and winter-spring moisture reserves and nutrients. In addition, they are more resistant to weeds, as they vegetate earlier in the spring.
In autumn, they form a well-developed root system and leaf surface. However, winter crops suffer from unfavorable wintering conditions: severe frosts, alternating thaws and frosts, ice crust, abundance of snow and melt water.
In regions where there are severe winters with little snow, frequent autumn droughts, for example, in the Trans-Volga region, in the Southern Urals, in Siberia, and in Northern Kazakhstan, winter crops are almost not cultivated.

Cultivation of grain crops in Russia

The placement of grain crops is primarily associated with their biological characteristics and soil and climatic conditions.
In the European part of Russia, winter crops are widespread, and in the northern regions with more severe winters, mainly winter rye is cultivated - the most winter-hardy crop; in the central, western and southern ones - winter wheat and in the southernmost, in addition, winter barley.

The main zoned varieties of winter rye - Vyatka 2, Omka, Saratov coarse-grained, Kharkovskaya 55, Kharkovskaya 60, Belta, Voskhod 2, Chulpan (short-stemmed).
The main varieties of winter wheat - Bezostaya 1, Mironovskaya 808, Ilyichevka, Odessa 51, Polesskaya 70, Krasnodar 39, Surf, Zernogradka, Rostovchanka.

Spring wheat is the main grain crop in the steppe arid regions of the Volga region, the Urals, Siberia, and Kazakhstan.
The main varieties of spring wheat - Kharkivskaya 46, Saratovskaya 29, Saratovskaya 42, Novosibirskaya 67, Moscowskaya 21.

Spring barley and oats are grown almost everywhere. Zoned varieties Viner, Moscow 121, Nutans 187, Donetsk 4, Donetsk 6, Luch, Alza, Nadia.
The main varieties of oats - Lgovsky 1026, Golden Rain, Victory, Eagle, Hercules.

Corn and sorghum are heat-loving crops, and their distribution is limited to the southern regions and the middle zone of the country. The main varieties and hybrids of corn - Chishminskaya, Voronezhskaya 76, Bukovinskiy ZTV, Dneprovskiy 56TV, Dneprovskiy 247MV, VIR 25, VIR 24M, VIR 156TV, Krasnodarskaya 1/49, Odesskaya 10.

Sorghum, as a salt-tolerant and drought-resistant crop, has advantages on saline soils and with a lack of moisture.
Sorghum varieties are zoned Ukrainian 107, Red amber.

Millet is characterized by an increased need for warmth and drought resistance, so it is cultivated in areas with a warm climate.
Grow varieties Saratov 853, Veselo-Podolyanskoe 38, Mironovskoe 51.

Rice requires a lot of heat and moisture. Rice fields - checks - are completely flooded with water. In our country, rice is grown mainly in the North Caucasus, southern Ukraine, the Volga region, Central Asia, Primorsky Krai, and southern Kazakhstan.
Rice varieties zoned Dubovsky 129, Kuban 3, Krasnodar 424, Uzros 59.

Buckwheat is a heat-loving and moisture-loving crop. This plant has a relatively short growing season and is therefore cultivated mainly in the temperate zone and also as a re-crop in the south under irrigation.
The main varieties of buckwheat - Bogatyr, Kazan Local, Kalininskaya, Yubileinaya 2.

Features of agricultural technology of grain crops

Agricultural technology of grain crops is different, but it also has much in common. When placed in a crop rotation, they are primarily divided into winter and spring, tilled and continuous (ordinary) sowing, early and late. Winter crops are placed after early harvested crops, especially legumes, in clean and busy fallows. They are better than spring ones, tolerate repeated crops, suffer less from weeds.
Spring cereals are best placed after row crops, winter crops, perennial grasses and legumes.
In arid regions, the main grain crop - spring wheat - is placed on a clean fallow for two years in a row. Then it is recommended to sow spring barley.
Millet gives high grain yields after perennial grasses.

The best predecessors of corn are winter, tilled and legumes.
Buckwheat does well after fertilized winter and row crops.
Rice is cultivated on rice irrigation systems in special rice crop rotations. In them, permanent crops of rice (3 - 4 years) alternate with crops of alfalfa, winter crops and some other crops, as well as with a busy fallow.
The main tillage for spring grain crops usually consists of autumn tillage in autumn (in a zone with sufficient moisture, plows with skimmers to the depth of the arable layer, in arid steppe regions - with flat-cutting tools).

Grain crops, except for rice, are grown in our country without irrigation, but in areas with developed irrigation, they occupy significant areas of irrigated land. This is mainly winter wheat and corn, which, when irrigated, yield grain yields of 50-100 c/ha and more.

In order to reduce the evaporation of moisture, in spring, in areas of sufficient moisture, the soil for spring crops is harrowed with toothed harrows, and in arid steppe regions, with needle harrows. Then, after the appearance of weeds, the fields are cultivated 1-3 times, depending on the sowing time of the crop and weediness.
In steppe arid regions, pre-sowing cultivation for spring wheat is usually carried out together with sowing. At the same time, fertilizers are applied to the fields. For this, combined units have been created.

Soil cultivation for winter crops is carried out after harvesting the predecessors. Often, especially when there is a lack of moisture in the soil, surface treatment (by 10 - 12 cm) with disk or flat-cutting tools is advisable.
Grains are sown at optimal times, which are established by research institutions for each crop and variety in all zones of the country. The fields are sown with high-quality seeds of zoned varieties and hybrids. Seeding rates vary greatly between crops and varieties, and are also set by research institutions for each zone.
For example, 120-250 kg of grain is sown per hectare of spring wheat, and 15-25 kg of corn.

Solid crops are sown with ordinary grain or grain fertilizer seeders, and row crops, such as corn, are sown with precision seeders. Fertilize at the same time. In arid steppe regions, grain crops are sown with stubble seeders with simultaneous cultivation. With row sowing, the distance between the rows of plants is 15 cm, narrow-row - 7-8 cm.

Buckwheat and millet are often sown in wide rows, the distance between the rows of plants is 45 - 60 cm, so that inter-row tillage can be carried out to loosen it and kill weeds. Seeds of millet, sorghum are buried in the ground to a depth of 2-4 cm, corn - up to 8-10 cm.
The lower the moisture content of the topsoil, the deeper the seeds are planted. To get high yields, organic and mineral fertilizers are applied under all crops.

The main application of fertilizers - mainly organic and mineral phosphorus-potassium - is best done in the fall for autumn processing. When sowing, granular phosphorus and nitrogen fertilizers are applied to the rows. For top dressing during the growing season, especially in the early phases of development - nitrogen and phosphorus. Doses are calculated according to agrochemical cartograms, depending on the needs of plants for nutrients and the planned harvest. Autumn and spring nitrogen and nitrogen-phosphorus top dressing of winter crops are very important.

Apply if necessary chemicals control of weeds, pests and plant diseases (pesticides, herbicides).
On irrigated lands, crops are irrigated during the main phases of plant development.

For cereal crops - buckwheat, millet and corn, the main care is the loosening of row spacings simultaneously with top dressing, the destruction of weeds. Bees are brought to buckwheat crops during flowering for pollination. The modern industrial technology of grain crops cultivation, based on the complex mechanization of all processes, makes it possible to completely abandon the use of manual labor.
Grain crops are harvested in a separate way (mowing the mass into windrows with headers, picking up and threshing windrows with combine harvesters) and by direct combining. The separate method allows you to start harvesting the grain of wax ripeness and significantly reduce losses.
Corn cobs (for grain) are harvested more often with corn harvesters.



Grains are members of the cereal family. Wheat and rye are among the main cereals. Corn, barley, oats have multiple uses.

Wheat is the most common staple cereal crop. Its crops are ubiquitous. Winter wheat is grown in the Ukrainian SSR, in the North Caucasus, in the Central Black Earth Zone, and also in the southern part of the Non-Chernozem Zone. Spring wheat prevails in the zone of arid agriculture and areas with severe winters. The most common are two types of wheat: soft, or ordinary, and durum wheat.

soft wheat occupies over 80% of all sown areas and accounts for more than 90% of the gross wheat harvest. The grain has an oval or round-oval shape, slightly expanded towards the embryo, with a pronounced beard and a deep groove. Grain consistency varies from glassy to mealy, depending on the variety and area of ​​cultivation. The color of the grain is very diverse - white, red, yellow in various shades.

Strong soft wheat is especially appreciated. Strong wheat flour is capable of producing dimensionally stable bread of large volume, with a good porous crumb. Strong wheat contains an increased amount of protein (not less than 14%), a sufficient amount of gluten (not less than 28%), good vitreousness (not less than 60-75%). Strong wheat produces high quality bread and can be used to upgrade weak wheat.

The bulk of marketable grain is medium wheat, it can be used to make good bread,

but unsuitable for improving weak wheats. Weak wheat produces bread with lower quality indicators. To get standard bread, strong wheat is added to it.

durum wheat occupies less than 10% of the area of ​​wheat, it is sown mainly as spring wheat, but winter hard wheat is common in the southern regions of the country.

Durum wheat is a valuable raw material for pasta and other industries. The grain is large, elongated, tapering downwards, angular in cross section, vitreous. The tuft at the top of the grain is weakly expressed. Durum wheat is sown mainly in the Volga region, in the Urals, Altai, and also in Kazakhstan. Soviet breeders have created a new form of wheat - hard winter.

Wheat grain during harvesting is evaluated according to the indicators of group I (freshness, humidity, weediness, infestation with granary pests), as well as by nature. In batches of grain of strong, durum wheat, the quantity and quality of raw gluten are additionally determined. To determine the typical composition of grain in all batches of wheat, vitreousness is determined.

GOST 9353-85 applies to wheat grain harvested by the state procurement system, as well as supplied for fodder purposes and for the production of animal feed.

The standard for wheat gives a commodity classification and the main indicators of grain quality. According to the commodity classification, wheat is divided into six types: spring red grain, spring durum, spring white grain, winter red grain, winter white grain, winter durum.

The division into types is based on the following features: color (red-grained, white-grained, amber), botanical appearance (hard, soft), biological form (spring, winter). Types are divided into two to five subtypes depending on the percentage of vitreousness and color shade. All of these features are associated with the technological and nutritional properties of grain.

Types and subtypes of grain do not give a complete picture of its quality and technological properties. Therefore, according to quality (humidity, weediness, weight of 1 liter and the number of small grains), harvested wheat is divided into two groups, and distributed - into five classes. In the first group (basic conditions), strict quality standards are established. So, weed impurities are allowed no more than 1%, and grain - no more than 3%. Classes for distributed grain are set according to nature, weed, grain impurities, the number of small grains. The highest quality indicators are for grain of the first class.

On the harvested strong and durum wheat established separate standards. In addition to general quality indicators, they include indicators that characterize the baking qualities of grain. So, strong wheat should have glassiness.

not less than 60%, gluten content not less than 28%, which must correspond to the quality of group I. In addition, the content of germinated grains is limited and damage to the grain by a bug-tortoise is not allowed. From the size of nature, the amount of gluten, the presence of wheat grains of other types, durum wheat is divided into three classes and non-class.

In the standards for grain distributed it is allowed to ship grain only with a normal smell, of the same type, with a humidity of not more than 15.5% and a weed impurity of not more than 2.0%, including harmful - 0.2%.

Rye is a valuable food and fodder crop. The food program of the country provides for a stable growth in the production of winter rye in the Non-Black Earth Region, the Volga Region, Ukraine, Belarus, and the Baltic republics. Rye is processed into baking flour, it is used for the production of malt, for the manufacture of concentrated feed.

There are winter and spring rye. In crops, 98% is more productive - winter form.

Rye grain in shape, structure, chemical composition is similar to wheat grain. Grains are wide, narrow, long and short. The mass of 1000 grains is from 18 to 30 g, the color is green, gray-green, yellow, brown and purple. The endosperm of rye is predominantly mealy or partly vitreous. In rye, the endosperm is smaller, and the shells and aleurone layer are larger than in wheat grains. This reduces the yield of varietal flour. The endosperm is more developed in green rye.

The chemical composition of rye differs from wheat. The protein content in it is about 2% lower, and the sugar content is 1.5% higher than in wheat grain. Gluten is of low quality, it has less starch, and more sugars than wheat. A feature of rye is the presence of up to 2.5% of mucus, which reduces the viscosity of rye dough.

According to the standards, rye is divided into three types: winter northern, winter southern and spring. Depending on the region of growth, rye is divided into subtypes. For harvesting rye, basic and restrictive conditions have been established, for distributed rye, five classes have been established. The division into classes is based on nature, humidity, the content of impurities and fine grains.

Triticale is a new hybrid cereal. It combines the hereditary characteristics of soft, durum wheat and rye. This is a fairly winter-hardy plant, yielding up to 70 kg / ha. It differs from rye in an increased content of proteins, lysine and aspartic acid. Gluten is washed out of triticale flour and, in terms of baking properties, it is close to wheat.

Barley ranks second after wheat in terms of sowing and harvesting of grain. Barley grain is used for food, fodder and technical purposes. Flour, barley and barley groats are produced from it, malt is made for brewing.

Barley is a valuable concentrated feed used in animal husbandry.

The production is dominated by varieties of two-row low-hulled barley with large leveled grains of semi-glassy consistency. Barley grain is oblong, with pointed ends, covered with a flower film, fused with the shell (the film is removed during the production of flour and cereals).

A feature of the grain structure is the strong development of the aleurone layer. Endosperm does not exceed 70% of the grain mass. According to the consistency, it is powdery, vitreous and semi-vitreous. For groats, glassy barley is of great value, and for brewing, barley with floury endosperm is of great value.

When harvesting barley for food and feed purposes, only general quality indicators have been established. Barley sold for the production of beer must meet the requirements of the seed viability standard (not less than 95%). In the production of cereals, high requirements are imposed on the nature of barley (not lower than 630 g / l), the content of small grains and grain impurities is also normalized.

Oats are valued as fodder and food crops. It is used for the production of nutritious cereals rich in biologically active substances, for the production of confectionery flour, oatmeal, coffee substitute, malt. Oats are a very valuable concentrated feed in animal husbandry. The crops are dominated by spring oats.

The fruit of oats is a caryopsis, mostly spindle-shaped, membranous. The hulliness of oat grain is quite high, depending on the variety, area and growing conditions (from 20 to 40%). The surface of the films is white or yellow with various shades. The films darken easily under unfavorable growing and harvesting conditions for oats.

The oat kernel is covered with hairs over the entire surface. Endosperm white, mealy; makes up 51-53% of the weight of the grain. A feature of the chemical composition is a low content of starch, an increased content of fiber, fat and minerals. Oat fats go rancid.

The standard provides for the definition of mandatory indicators and nature for harvested oats. In cereal oats, the presence of small grains, filminess are additionally determined, and the content of the kernel is calculated.

Oats harvested according to the standard are divided into two types: I - food-(two subtypes: white oats, large, finished grain; yellow oats) and II - stern(grain is long, narrow, needle-shaped).

Corn is a high-yielding multi-purpose grain crop. More than 150 food and technical products are obtained from corn: starch, molasses, alcohol, cereals, flakes, flour, etc. Valuable oil is prepared from corn germ.

The inflorescence of corn is an ear in which from 300 to 1000 grains are arranged in regular rows. The core makes up approximately 20-25% of the mass of the cob.

Corn differs from other cereals in the strong development of the grain germ, which accounts for about 12% of the weight of the grain. It contains up to 35% fat and up to 8% ash. The endosperm of corn makes up about 70% of the weight of the grain. It can be mealy or vitreous (horn-shaped). Grains are white, yellow, red, rarely blue. The nutritional and fodder value of corn depends on the content of essential amino acids in proteins.

Soviet breeders have created and put into production hybrids of corn with a high content of lysine and tryptophan.

When harvesting corn, the color and shape of the grain, the consistency of the endosperm are determined. In accordance with the botanical features, the standard provides for the division of corn into nine types: I - dentate yellow, II - dentate white, III - siliceous yellow, IV - siliceous white, V - semidentate yellow, VI - semidentate white, VII - bursting white, VIII - bursting yellow, IX - waxy.

The standards establish basic and restrictive conditions for harvested corn grain. So, in terms of humidity, restrictive conditions range from 22 to 25%, for grain impurities - up to 15, for weed impurities - up to 8%. The GOST specifies the recommended types of grain and the norms of its quality when sold for cereal, flour-grinding, food-concentrate industries, for trade and public catering enterprises. Grain sent for technical purposes must have a moisture content of not more than 15%, weed impurities not more than 2%, including grains affected by diseases, not more than 1%.

For the cereal industry, siliceous and semi-toothed corn is mainly supplied; for the food concentrate industry - tooth-shaped yellow or white, siliceous yellow and white; for trade and public catering enterprises - siliceous and bursting. A mixture of types is not allowed.

In the southern regions of the country, where wheat for a long time - the main, leading crop, with the right agricultural technology, they get even higher yields. Thus, for example, a new variety of winter wheat, Bezostaya-4, yielded an average yield of 40 centners per hectare on collective farm fields. And at the state farm. Kalinin Korenevsky district, Krasnodar region, the same variety of winter wheat yielded 48.6 centners per hectare. On one of the fields of the state farm, with an area of ​​149 hectares, the harvest was even 54.5 centners per hectare. The harvest of another new variety - Bezostaya-41 - in 1959 reached 50-60 centners per hectare on variety-testing plots. In Siberia and Kazakhstan, on newly developed virgin and fallow lands, the sown area is mainly occupied by spring wheat, the yield of which in 1958 on a number of state farms exceeded 40 centners per hectare.

After wheat, the largest sown area in the USSR is occupied by rye. And worldwide, its cultivated area is in fourth place - after wheat, rice and corn. To soil and climatic conditions rye less demanding than wheat. It also grows on sandy soils, and on sandy loamy soils it gives high yields. In addition, it is more frost-resistant: its crops have crossed the Arctic Circle and now reach 69 ° N. sh. Compared with the pre-revolutionary period, its crops in the USSR decreased due to an increase in wheat crops. But in many parts of the country, it remains the main food crop.

Among the varieties of rye, there are both winter and spring varieties. The main area under rye crops in the USSR is occupied by winter varieties, as they are more productive. The best predecessor for winter rye is fertilized fallow.

In many areas of the European part of the USSR, the yields of winter rye are much higher in height and stability than the yields of spring grains. Thus, for example, the advanced collective farms of the Chuvash ASSR, Moscow, Kursk and other regions receive rye yields of 40 and 50 centners per hectare.

Black bread is made from rye grain. Rye straw is used in agriculture: it is used for bedding for livestock, mats for greenhouses are knitted from it. Rye straw is also used in industry as a raw material for the manufacture of paper and cardboard.

Winter rye is sometimes grown for spring feeding of productive cattle, since rye, earlier than other plants, provides an abundance of high-quality green fodder.

oats grown mainly for livestock feed. But a lot of food products are also produced from it: cereals, oatmeal, oatmeal (hercules).

Oatmeal is very nutritious. In the grain of hulled varieties, up to 18% protein, about 6% fat and up to 40% starch. The grain of naked oats contains up to 23% protein. Oatmeal is well absorbed by the body of the animal and is especially useful for young animals. Oatmeal is a dietary product for children. Straw and oat chaff are fed to livestock. Oat straw is more nutritious than the straw of other cereals.

Majority known species oats grows among wild flora. The cultivated type of oats - the so-called sowing oats - is divided into membranous and naked varieties. There are a lot of varieties of sowing oats, and each of them is adapted to certain soil and climatic conditions.

In the USSR, mainly membranous varieties are cultivated. They were bred by Soviet breeders by selection from ancient local varieties.

Oats give the highest yields in mild climates and sufficient precipitation. It is less demanding on the soil than other grain breads; therefore, the sowing of oats, as a rule, ends any crop rotation. Compared to other grains, oats are the least valuable crop. Therefore, the expansion of the sowing of other grains, such as corn, should go primarily at the expense of the reduction in the sowing of oats.

A much smaller sown area than wheat, rye or oats occupies in the Soviet Union. barley. It is mainly used for livestock feed, in the brewing industry and for making barley coffee. But there are countries, such as Tibet, where barley is the main cereal plant, since other cereals do not ripen there: of all cereals, barley is the most early-ripening plant.

Cereals, the grain of which is not used for flour and not for baking bread, but for making cereals, are called cereals. Of the cereal grains in the Soviet Union, millet is of the greatest importance. Cultivated millet is divided into three main groups according to the shape of the panicle: spreading - with long branches and a loose structure of the panicle, drooping - with long and tightly adjacent branches and compact - with short branches very tightly adjacent to each other. Millet grains are covered with films and after their collapse (cleaning) food millet is obtained.

Among all cereals, millet is the most drought-resistant crop. Therefore, in the USSR it is most of all sown in the southeastern regions of the country. With good care, millet yields reach 60 centners per hectare or more.

The highest yields of millet are obtained when sown on a layer of virgin soil or sown perennial grasses. Therefore, in the practice of farming, millet is considered a reservoir crop. You can cultivate millet on soft lands, but they must be clean of weeds. Millet sprouts develop very slowly and therefore are heavily clogged with weeds on weedy soils. In addition to the layer of virgin soil and sown perennial grasses, row crops such as potatoes and sugar beet are a good predecessor for millet. In turn, millet is considered a good predecessor for spring wheat, barley and oats. Millet is very responsive to phosphate fertilizers.

The best sowing method is wide-row, as millet is a photophilous plant. The seeding rate for ordinary row sowing is 20-25 kg per hectare, and for wide-row sowing it is two times less, the adaptability of the variety to soil and climatic conditions is also of great importance. Therefore, sowing with varietal and zoned seeds is a mandatory agrotechnical measure. In the USSR, millet cultivation is concentrated in the Kazakh SSR, in the Volga region, and in the Central Chernozem zone. Millet ripens unevenly and crumbles easily. Controlling grain losses in millet harvesting is of paramount importance.

For half of the world's population, the main food is rice. Rice has the same importance as our bread in Japan, China, India, Indonesia, Burma, Vietnam. It has been cultivated for a very long time. In Southeast Asia, rice was known as cultivated plant already 4-5 thousand years ago. Rice is grown in fields flooded with water. But rice is not a swamp, but a mountain plant. Its wild species grow, although in a humid climate, but on soil that is not flooded with water. In India, Burma and Vietnam, it was originally cultivated on the gentle slopes of the mountains. The monsoons brought heavy rainfall to these mountains. But since the monsoons are a seasonal phenomenon, with such agriculture it was possible to harvest only one crop per year. In order to prevent downpours from demolishing the earth from the mountain slopes, stone and earthen ramparts began to be erected around the rice crops. Thus terraces were formed, and the water of monsoon rains lingered on them. For cultivated rice, such abundant moisture proved to be beneficial. He began to give large harvests, and two or three crops a year. In terms of yield, irrigated rice surpasses even millet. Gradually, rice culture descended from the mountains to the valleys, where high-water rivers were used to irrigate crops. Where there are no large rivers, for example, on the island of Java, rice is still cultivated on mountain terraces.

With constant flooding of rice fields, the useful activity of microorganisms fades in the soil. Therefore, it is better to use shortened flooding: after sowing, 3-4 irrigations are carried out, and when the rice reaches wax ripeness, water is dumped from the field.

There are now more than 10 thousand varieties of cultivated rice. Soviet breeders have developed varieties suitable for our climate. In our country, rice is cultivated in Central Asia, in the Krasnodar Territory, in the south of Ukraine and in the Moldavian SSR. The grain of rice is high in nutrients. Approximately 75% of it consists of carbohydrates. Rice straw is a valuable raw material. It is used to make thin and durable paper, ropes, ropes, baskets, and hats.

If you create the best conditions for rice to grow and develop, you can harvest an exceptionally high yield. Until 1958, 170 centners per hectare was considered the largest rice crop. Since 1958, in the People's Republic of China, on experimental plots, yields of more than 1000 centners per hectare began to be obtained.

Such fabulous harvests were obtained by our Chinese friends as a result of thickening of crops, deep tillage and abundant application of mineral and organic fertilizers. Rice culture in China is a transplant. Previously, there were about a million rice plants per hectare of crops; on a hectare of experimental plots, there are dozens of times more of them - due to transplantation from other plots. With such a density of sowing, there is almost no free space between plants. Rice in the thickened area, only ripens on the vine, and the area of ​​​​other areas is freed for a new planting. The grown and strengthened plants were transplanted to the experimental plot in deeply plowed and fertilized soil in several layers. They fertilized it with manure, silt, crushed bones, leaves of bast crops, and chemical fertilizers.

But our Chinese friends get high yields of rice not only from experimental plots. Thus, for example, in five provinces - Jiangsu, Anhui, Hubei, Sichuan and Henan - an average rice yield of 375 centners per hectare was obtained in 1958.

Buckwheat grain chemical composition is close to the grain of cereals. Buckwheat is used to make cereals. Therefore, buckwheat is considered by us in the same section with cereals, although it belongs to the buckwheat family.

Buckwheat- an annual herbaceous plant with a strongly branching, reddish and ribbed, non-lodging stem, up to a meter high. It is cultivated in all temperate countries, but the first place in terms of sown area and gross grain harvest belongs to the Soviet Union.

Buckwheat is of the greatest economic importance. The nutritional value of its grain is higher than that of cereal grains. Buckwheat grain contains a lot of iron and organic acids (citric and malic). Its protein and carbohydrates are well absorbed by the body. Buckwheat has good taste qualities.

Buckwheat is the most important honey plant, but it produces dark honey. The flowering of buckwheat starts from the lower inflorescences, passes to the upper ones and stretches in time until harvesting, so the period of honey collection from buckwheat crops is quite long. Buckwheat also ripens unevenly, and ripe grain can crumble. Therefore, buckwheat is usually harvested when two-thirds of the grains on the plant reach full ripeness.

Buckwheat is an early ripening crop. From its seedlings to ripening, it takes from 65 to 80 days. In the southern regions of the USSR, if a sufficient amount of atmospheric precipitation falls in the second half of the summer, it can, with good agricultural technology, produce high yields in stubble sowing, that is, in sowing after grain harvest.

When sown in the spring, winter rye, wheat, potatoes, beets, flax will be a good predecessor for it. Buckwheat seedlings are sensitive to frost, and its seeds germinate well at a soil temperature of 12-13 °.

Buckwheat roots dissolve substances containing phosphoric acid. Therefore, under buckwheat, it is advisable to apply not superphosphate, but cheaper phosphate rock (see the article “Fertilizers and their use”). Then, at a rate of 5-6 centners per hectare, it can increase the grain yield by one and a half to two times. Fresh manure or exclusively nitrogen fertilizers cause a strong growth of green mass in buckwheat to the detriment of grain formation. If nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium fertilizers are introduced into the soil, the yield of buckwheat increases dramatically.

Buckwheat harvests in the past were low and unstable. At present, the advanced collective farms of the Ukraine, Tula, Moscow, Gorky and other regions are getting 15-25 and even 30 centners per hectare of buckwheat.

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