Types of radioactive particles. Radioactivity

23.12.2020

The main types of radioactivity are alpha, beta and gamma decays.

Alpha decay. In this case, spontaneous emission of an α-particle (nucleus of the nuclide 4He) occurs by the nucleus, and this occurs according to the scheme

where X is the symbol of the parent nucleus, Y is the symbol of the child.

It has been established that α-particles emit only heavy nuclei. The kinetic energy with which α-particles fly out of the decaying nucleus is on the order of several MeV. In air at normal pressure, the range of α-particles is several centimeters (their energy is spent on the formation of ions on their way).

An alpha particle appears only at the moment of radioactive decay of the nucleus. Leaving the core, it has to overcome the potential barrier
ep, the height of which exceeds its energy (see figure).

The inner side of the barrier is due to nuclear forces, while the outer side is due to the forces of the Coulomb repulsion of the α-particle and the daughter nucleus.
Overcoming potential by α-particle
barrier under these conditions is due to the tunnel effect

The quantum theory, taking into account the wave properties of the α-particle, "allows" it to penetrate such a barrier with a certain probability. The corresponding calculation is well confirmed by the measurement results.

beta decay . This is the name of a spontaneous process in which the original nucleus turns into another nucleus with the same mass number A, but with charge number Z, which differs from the original by ±1. This is due to the fact that β -decay is accompanied by the emission of an electron (positron) or its capture from the shell of the atom. There are three varieties β -decay:

1)electronic- decay in which the nucleus emits an electron and its charge number Z becomes Z + 1;

2) positron - decay in which the nucleus emits a positron and its charge number Z becomes Z - 1;

3)TO-capture, in which the nucleus captures one of the electrons in the electron shell of the atom (usually from TO-shells) and its charge number Z becomes equal Z-one. to the vacant seat in TO-shell-ke passes an electron from another shell, and therefore TO-seizure is always accompanied by character-
static x-rays.

The “-decay problem” was solved by Pauli (1930), who suggested that an electrically neutral particle is emitted together with an electron, which is elusive due to its very large penetrating power. They called it the neutrino.

An important circumstance in favor of the hypothesis of the existence of neutrinos is the need to preserve the angular momentum in the decay reaction. The fact is that the distinguishing feature of (-decay is the transformation of a neutron into a proton in the nucleus, and vice versa. Therefore, we can say that -decay is not an intranuclear process, but an intranucleon process. In this regard, the above three types of -decay are due to the following transformations nucleons in the nucleus:

It has now been established that the neutrino spin is 1/2.

Observing neutrinos directly is very difficult. This is due to the fact that their electric charge is zero, their mass (if any) is extremely small, fantastically small and the effective cross section of their interaction with nuclei. According to theoretical estimates, the mean free path of a neutrino with an energy of 1 MeV in water is about 10 16 km (or 100 light years!). This is much larger than the stars. Such neutrinos freely penetrate the Sun, and even more so the Earth.

To register the process of neutrino capture, it is necessary to have huge neutrino flux densities. This became possible only after the creation of nuclear reactors, which were used as powerful sources of neutrinos.

Direct experimental proof of the existence of the neutrino was obtained in 1956.

Gamma decay. This type of decay consists in the emission of γ-quanta by an excited nucleus during its transition to the normal state, the energy of which varies from 10 keV to 5 MeV. It is essential that the spectrum of emitted γ-quanta is discrete, since the energy levels of the nuclei themselves are discrete.

Unlike β -decay, γ -decay - the process is intranuclear, not intranucleon.

Excited nuclei are formed when β -decay if the decay of the parent nucleus X to the ground state of the child kernel Y prohibited. Then the child nucleus Y turns out to be in one of the excited states, the transition from which to the ground state is accompanied by the emission of y-quanta (see Fig.).

An excited nucleus can also pass to the ground state in another way, by directly transferring the excitation energy to one of the atomic electrons, for example, in TO-shell. This process competes with β -decay is called internal electron conversion. Internal conversion is accompanied by X-rays.

Nuclear reactions

A nuclear reaction is a process of strong interaction of an atomic nucleus with an elementary particle or with another nucleus, a process accompanied by the transformation of nuclei. This interaction arises due to the action of nuclear forces when particles approach each other up to distances of the order of 10 -13 cm.

Note that it is nuclear reactions that provide the most extensive information about the properties of nuclei. Therefore, the study of nuclear reactions is the most important task of nuclear physics.

The most common type of nuclear reaction is the particle interaction a with core x, resulting in the formation of a particle b and core Y. This is written symbolically like this:

Role of Particles a and b most often perform a neutron P, proton R, deuteron d, α -particle and γ -quantum..

Particles produced as a result of a nuclear reaction can be not only b and Y, but along with them other b", Y". In this case, the nuclear reaction is said to have several channels, with different channels corresponding to different probabilities.

Types of nuclear reactions. It has been established that reactions caused by not very fast particles proceed in two stages. The first stage is the capture of the incident particle a core X with the formation of a compound (or intermediate) nucleus. In this case, the energy of the particle a is quickly redistributed among all the nucleons of the nucleus, and the compound nucleus is in an excited state. The nucleus stays in this state until, as a result of internal fluctuations, one of the particles (which may consist of several nucleons) concentrates energy sufficient for its escape from the nucleus.

Such a mechanism for the occurrence of a nuclear reaction was proposed by N. Bohr (1936) and subsequently confirmed experimentally. These reactions are sometimes written with a compound nucleus WITH, such as

where is the star WITH indicates that the kernel WITH* occurs in an excited state.

Compound core WITH* exists for a long time - in comparison with the "nuclear time", i.e., the time of flight of a nucleon with an energy of the order of 1 MeV ( v 10 9 cm/s) of a distance equal to the diameter of the nucleus. Nuclear time i 10 -21 s. The lifetime of a compound nucleus in an excited state is ~ 10 -14 s. That is, on a nuclear scale, the compound nucleus lives indeed for a very long time. During this time, all traces of the history of its formation disappear. Therefore, the decay of the compound nucleus - the second stage of the reaction - proceeds regardless of the method of formation of the compound nucleus.

Reactions caused by fast particles with energies exceeding tens of MeV proceed without the formation of a compound nucleus. And the nuclear reaction is usually direct. In this case, the incident particle directly transfers its energy to some particle inside the nucleus, for example, one nucleon, deuteron, α -particle, etc., as a result of which this particle flies out of the nucleus.

A typical direct interaction reaction is a stall reaction, when the incident particle is, for example, a deuteron. When one of the deuteron nucleons enters the area of action of nuclear forces, it will be captured by the nucleus, while the other nucleon of the deuteron will be outside the area of action of nuclear forces and will fly past the nucleus. Symbolically, the breakdown reaction is written as ( d,n) or ( d, p).

When nuclei are bombarded by strongly interacting particles with very high energy (from several hundred MeV and above), the nuclei can "explode", disintegrating into many small fragments. When registered, such explosions leave a trail in the form of multi-beam stars.

Reaction energy. It is customary to say that nuclear reactions can occur both with the release and absorption of energy.

Reactions with the release of energy are called exoenergetic, reactions with the absorption of energy are called endoenergetic.

The electron has antiparticle - positron, which was found in cosmic radiation. The existence of positrons has also been proven by observing their tracks in a cloud chamber placed in a magnetic field. Positron- a particle with a mass equal to the mass of an electron and spin 1/2 (in units) that carries a positive charge + e.

According to Bohr, nuclear reactions proceed in two stages according to the scheme:

The first stage is the capture of a particle by the nucleus a and the formation of an intermediate nucleus WITH, called the composite, or compound-kernel. The second stage is the decay of the compound nucleus into a nucleus Y and particle b.

Frédéric and Irene Joliot-Curie bombarded α -particles B, A1 and Mg, which led to artificially radioactive nuclei undergoing -decay (positron decay or + p- decay):

In nuclear reactions, the displacement rule is satisfied

Process p+- the decay proceeds as if one of the protons of the nucleus turned into a neutron, while emitting a positron and a neutrino:

Positrons can be created in the interaction γ -quanta of high energy ( E γ> 1.02 MeV = 2 m e s 2) with matter. This process proceeds according to the scheme

Electron-positron pairs were found in a cloud chamber placed in a magnetic field, in which they deviated in opposite directions. The process of transformation of an electron-positron pair (in a collision of a positron with an electron) into two γ - quantum, is called annihilation. During annihilation, the energy of the pair is converted into the energy of photons

The appearance in this process of two γ -quanta follows from the laws of conservation of momentum and energy.

The capture by the nucleus of an electron from one of the inner shells of the atom (K, L, etc.) with the emission of a neutrino (electron capture or e-capture) occurs according to the following scheme:

(the appearance of neutrinos follows from the law of conservation of spin). In general, the scheme e-capture:

Depending on the speed (energy), neutrons are divided into slow and fast.

Slow neutrons: ultracold (≤ 10 -7 eV),

very cold (10 -7 ÷10 -4 eV), cold (10 -4 ÷10 -3 eV),

thermal (10 -3 ÷0.5 eV), resonant (0.5÷10 4 eV) Electronic capture is detected by the characteristic X-ray radiation accompanying it, which occurs when the formed vacancies in the electron shell of the atom are filled. All the decay energy is carried away by the neutrino.

Neutrons can be slowed down by passing them through a substance containing hydrogen (for example, water). They experience scattering and slow down.

rays of the first type are deflected in the same way as a stream of positively charged particles; they were called α-rays;
rays of the second type deviate in a magnetic field in the same way as a stream of negatively charged particles (in the opposite direction), they were called β-rays;
rays of the third type, which are not deflected by a magnetic field, are called γ-radiation.

Alpha decay

α-decay called the spontaneous decay of the atomic nucleus into a daughter nucleus and an α-particle (the nucleus of the 4 He atom).

α-decay, as a rule, occurs in heavy nuclei with a mass number A≥140 (although there are a few exceptions). Inside heavy nuclei, due to the property of saturation of nuclear forces, separate α-particles are formed, consisting of two protons and two neutrons. The resulting α-particle is subject to a greater action of the Coulomb repulsive forces from the protons of the nucleus than individual protons. At the same time, the α-particle experiences less nuclear attraction to the nucleons of the nucleus than the rest of the nucleons. The resulting alpha particle at the boundary of the nucleus is reflected inward from the potential barrier, but with some probability it can overcome it (see tunnel effect) and fly out. As the energy of the alpha particle decreases, the permeability of the potential barrier decreases exponentially, so the lifetime of nuclei with a lower available energy of alpha decay, other things being equal, is longer.

Soddy's shift rule for α-decay:

. .

As a result of α-decay, the element is shifted 2 cells to the beginning of the periodic table, the mass number of the daughter nucleus decreases by 4.

beta decay

Becquerel proved that β-rays are a stream of electrons. β decay is a manifestation of the weak force.

β-decay(more precisely, beta minus decay, β - decay) is a radioactive decay, accompanied by the emission of an electron and an antineutrino from the nucleus.

β decay is an intranucleon process. It occurs as a result of the transformation of one of d-quarks in one of the neutrons of the nucleus in u-quark; in this case, the neutron is converted into a proton with the emission of an electron and an antineutrino:

Soddy's shift rule for β − decay:

After β − -decay, the element is shifted by 1 cell to the end of the periodic table (the nuclear charge increases by one), while the mass number of the nucleus does not change.

There are also other types of beta decay. In positron decay (beta plus decay), the nucleus emits a positron and a neutrino. In this case, the charge of the nucleus decreases by one (the nucleus is shifted one cell to the beginning of the periodic table). Positron decay always accompanied by a competing process - electron capture (when the nucleus captures an electron from the atomic shell and emits a neutrino, while the charge of the nucleus also decreases by one). However, the converse is not true: many nuclides, for which positron decay is forbidden, experience electron capture. The rarest known type of radioactive decay is double beta decay, it has been found to date for only ten nuclides, and half-lives exceed 10 19 years. All types of beta decay conserve the mass number of the nucleus.

Gamma decay (isomer transition)

Almost all nuclei have, in addition to the ground quantum state, a discrete set of excited states with higher energy (exceptions are the nuclei ¹H , ²H , ³H and ³He). Excited states can be populated during nuclear reactions or radioactive decay of other nuclei. Most excited states have very short lifetimes (less than a nanosecond). However, there are also fairly long-lived states (whose lifetimes are measured in microseconds, days, or years), which are called isomeric states, although the boundary between them and short-lived states is very arbitrary. The isomeric states of nuclei, as a rule, decay into the ground state (sometimes through several intermediate states). In this case, one or more gamma quanta are emitted; the excitation of the nucleus can also be removed by the emission of conversion electrons from the atomic shell. Isomeric states can also decay through the usual beta and alpha decays.

Special types of radioactivity

Proton radioactivity
Two-proton radioactivity
Neutron radioactivity

Literature

Sivukhin D.V. General course of physics. - 3rd edition, stereotypical. - M .: Fizmatlit, 2002. - T. V. Atomic and nuclear physics. - 784 p. - ISBN 5-9221-0230-3

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Radioactivity

Everyone knows that the atoms of matter consist of a nucleus and electrons revolving around it. The core is a very stable formation that is difficult to destroy. However, the nuclei of atoms of some substances are unstable and can radiate various energies and particles into space. This radiation is called radioactive. It includes several components, which are named according to the first three letters of the Greek alphabet: α-, β- and γ- radiation (alpha, beta and gamma radiation).

The phenomenon of radioactivity was discovered empirically by the French scientist Henri Becquerel in 1896 for uranium salts. Becquerel noticed that uranium salts illuminate photographic paper wrapped in many layers with invisible penetrating radiation.
Types of radioactive emissions and methods for their registration.
English physicist Ernest Rutherford explored radiation in electric and magnetic fields. He discovered two components of this radiation, which were called α-, β-radiation. The figure shows radioactive radiation in an electric field.

a — radiation is a stream of heavy positively charged particles (helium nuclei) moving at a speed of about 10 7 m/s. Because of the positive charge a – particles are deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
β — radiation is a stream of fast electrons. Electrons - e are much smaller than alpha particles and can penetrate several centimeters deep into the body. They have speeds from 10 8 m/s to 0.999 s. Due to the presence of a negative charge, electrons are deflected by electric and magnetic fields in the opposite direction compared to β - particles.
γ – radiation - these are photons, i.e. electromagnetic radiation that carries energy. It is not deflected by electric and magnetic fields. The parameters of the nucleus do not change during radiation, the nucleus only passes into a state with a lower energy. The decayed nucleus is also radioactive, i.e., a chain of successive radioactive transformations occurs. The process of decay of all radioactive elements goes to lead. Lead is the end product of decay.

It was found that the penetrating power was the smallest in α- -rays(a sheet of paper or a few centimeters of a layer of air),
a β -rays pass through an aluminum plate a few millimeters thick. Very high penetrating power γ - rays(for example, aluminum - the thickness of the plate is tens of centimeters).

So, radioactivity indicates the complex structure of atoms.
Special devices that are used to detect nuclear radiation are called nuclear radiation detectors. The most widely used are detectors that detect nuclear radiation by their ionization and excitation of the atoms of matter. This - gas-discharge Geiger counter, cloud chamber, bubble chamber. There is also photographic emulsion method , based on the ability of a passing particle to create a latent image in a photographic emulsion. The trace of a particle flying through it is visible in the photograph after development.
Effect of ionizing radiation on living organisms
Radioactive radiation has a strong biological effect on the tissues of a living organism. It ionizes the atoms and molecules of the medium. Under the influence ionizing radiation complex molecules and elements of cellular structures are destroyed. In the human body, the process of hematopoiesis is disrupted. A person falls ill with leukemia, or the so-called radiation sickness. Large doses of radiation lead to death.

Glass blocks only alpha and beta radiation.

4. . 5. .

Radioactivity- this is the emission of various particles by the nuclei of some elements, accompanied by the transition of the nucleus to another state and a change in its parameters. The phenomenon of radioactivity was discovered empirically by the French scientist Henri Becquerel in 1896 for uranium salts. Becquerel noticed that uranium salts illuminate photographic paper wrapped in many layers with invisible penetrating radiation.

The English physicist E. Rutherford investigated radioactive radiation in electric and magnetic fields and discovered three components of this radiation, which were called -, -, -radiation (Fig. 36). -decay is the radiation of -particles (helium nuclei) of high energies. In this case, the mass of the nucleus decreases by 4 units, and the charge - by 2 units.

-decay- radiation of electrons, and the charge of the nucleus increases by one, the mass number does not change.

-Radiation represents the emission of high-frequency light quanta by an excited nucleus. The parameters of the nucleus during -radiation do not change, the nucleus only passes into a state with a lower energy. The decayed nucleus is also radioactive, i.e., a chain of successive radioactive transformations occurs. The process of decay of all radioactive elements goes to lead. Lead is the end product of decay.

Instruments used to detect nuclear radiation are called nuclear radiation detectors. The most widely used detectors that detect nuclear radiation by their ionization and excitation of the atoms of the substance: gas-discharge Geiger counter, cloud chamber, bubble chamber. For example, the operation of the Geiger counter is based on impact ionization. There is also a method photographic emulsions, based on the ability of a passing particle to create a latent image in a photographic emulsion. The trace of the flying particle is visible in the photograph after development.

Radioactive radiation has a strong biological effect on the tissues of a living organism, which consists in the ionization of atoms and molecules of the medium. Excited atoms and ions have a strong chemical activity, so new chemical compounds appear in the cells of the body, which are alien to a healthy body. Under the action of ionizing radiation, complex molecules and elements of cellular structures are destroyed. In the human body, the process of hematopoiesis is disturbed, leading to an imbalance of white and red blood cells. A person falls ill with leukemia, or the so-called radiation sickness. Large doses of radiation lead to death.

Absorbed radiation dose D is the ratio of the absorbed energy to the mass of the irradiated substance: . The unit of absorbed radiation dose is gray (Gy). The allowable radiation dose is Common Mistakes

1. Talking about the phenomenon of radioactivity, some applicants erroneously claim that the rays, which are a stream of electrons, are emitted not by the nuclei of atoms, but by electron shells, since there are no electrons inside the nuclei.

Recall that all types of radioactive radiation are emitted nuclei atoms. The nuclei of all atoms are made up of protons and neutrons. Where does an electron appear in -decay if it is not in the nucleus? It is desirable that in the nucleus, under certain conditions, the transformation of a neutron into a proton occurs with the simultaneous formation of an electron, which at the same time flies out of the nucleus (leaves the nucleus and one more particle - an antineutrino).

Radioactivity in physics is understood as the instability of the nuclei of a number of atoms, which manifests itself in their natural ability to spontaneously decay. This process is accompanied by the emission of ionizing radiation, which is called radiation. The energy of ionizing radiation particles can be very high. Radiation cannot be caused by chemical reactions.

Radioactive substances and technical installations (accelerators, reactors, X-ray manipulation equipment) are sources of radiation. Radiation itself exists only up to the moment of absorption in matter.

Radioactivity is measured in becquerels (Bq). Another unit is often used - curie (Ci). The activity of a radiation source is characterized by the number of disintegrations per second.

The measure of the ionizing effect of radiation on a substance is the exposure dose, most often it is measured in roentgens (R). One roentgen is a very large quantity. Therefore, in practice, millionths or thousandths of an x-ray are most often used. Radiation in critical doses may well cause radiation sickness.

Closely related to the concept of radioactivity is the concept of half-life. This is the time it takes for the number of radioactive nuclei to halve. Each radionuclide (kind of radioactive atom) has its own half-life. It can be equal to seconds or billions of years. For the purposes of scientific research, the principle that the half-life of the same radioactive substance is constant is important. It won't be possible to change it.

General information about radiation. Types of radioactivity

During the synthesis of a substance or its decay, the elements that make up the atom are emitted: neutrons, protons, electrons, photons. It is said that radiation of such elements occurs. Such radiation is called ionizing (radioactive). Another name for this phenomenon is radiation.

Radiation is understood as a process in which elementary charged particles are emitted by a substance. The type of radiation is determined by the elements that are emitted.

Ionization is the process of formation of charged ions or electrons from neutral molecules or atoms.

Radioactive radiation is divided into several types, which are caused by microparticles of different nature. Particles of matter involved in radiation have different energy effects, different penetrating power. The biological effect of radiation will also be different.

When talking about the types of radioactivity, they understand the types of radiation. In science, they include the following groups:

alpha radiation;
beta radiation;
neutron radiation;
gamma radiation;
x-ray radiation.

alpha radiation

This type of radiation occurs in the case of the decay of isotopes of elements that are not stable. This is the name given to the radiation of heavy and positively charged alpha particles. They are the nuclei of helium atoms. Alpha particles can be obtained from the decay of complex atomic nuclei:

thorium;
uranium;
radium.

Alpha particles have a large mass. The speed of radiation of this type is relatively low: it is 15 times lower than the speed of light. Upon contact with matter, heavy alpha particles collide with its molecules. There is an interaction. However, particles lose energy, so their penetrating power is very small. A simple piece of paper can block alpha particles.

And yet, when interacting with matter, alpha particles cause its ionization. If we are talking about the cells of a living organism, then alpha radiation can damage them, destroying tissues.

Alpha radiation has the smallest penetrating power among other types of ionizing radiation. However, the consequences of the impact of such particles on living tissue are considered the most severe.

A living organism can receive a dose of this type of radiation if radioactive elements enter the body with food, air, water, through wounds or cuts. When radioactive elements penetrate the body, they are carried through the bloodstream to all its parts, accumulate in the tissues.

Certain types of radioactive isotopes can exist for a long time. Therefore, when they enter the body, they can cause very serious changes in cellular structures - up to the complete degeneration of tissues.

Radioactive isotopes cannot leave the body on their own. The body is not able to neutralize, assimilate, process or utilize such isotopes.

neutron radiation

This is the name of man-made radiation that occurs during atomic explosions or in nuclear reactors. Neutron radiation has no charge: Colliding with matter, it interacts very weakly with parts of the atom. The penetrating power of this type of radiation is high. Materials containing a lot of hydrogen can stop it. This may be, in particular, a container of water. Neutron radiation also hardly penetrates through polyethylene.

When passing through biological tissues, neutron radiation can cause very serious damage to cellular structures. It has a significant mass, its speed is much higher than that of alpha radiation.

beta radiation

It occurs at the moment of transformation of one element into another. The processes in this case take place in the very nucleus of the atom, which leads to changes in the properties of neutrons and protons. With this type of radiation, a neutron turns into a proton or a proton into a neutron. The process is accompanied by the emission of a positron or an electron. The speed of beta radiation is close to the speed of light. The elements emitted by matter are called beta particles.

Due to the high speed and small size of the emitted particles, beta radiation has a high penetrating power. However, its ability to ionize matter is several times less than that of alpha radiation.

Beta radiation can easily penetrate clothing and, to some extent, living tissue. But if the particles encounter dense structures of a substance (for example, a metal) on their way, they begin to interact with it. In this case, beta particles lose some of their energy. A metal sheet a few millimeters thick is capable of completely stopping such radiation.

Alpha radiation is dangerous only in direct contact with a radioactive isotope. But beta radiation can harm the body at a distance of several tens of meters from the radiation source. When a radioactive isotope is inside the body, it tends to accumulate in organs and tissues, damaging them and causing significant changes.

Individual radioactive isotopes of beta radiation have a long decay period: once in the body, they may well irradiate it for a number of years. This can lead to cancer.

Gamma radiation

So called energy radiation of the electromagnetic type, when the substance emits photons. This radiation accompanies the decay of atoms of matter. Gamma radiation manifests itself in the form of electromagnetic energy (photons), which is released during a change in the state of the nucleus of an atom. Gamma radiation has a speed equal to the speed of light.

When a radioactive decay of an atom occurs, another substance is formed from one substance. The atoms of the resulting substances are energetically unstable, they are in the so-called excited state. When neutrons and protons act on each other, protons and neutrons come to a state in which the forces of interaction become balanced. An atom emits excess energy in the form of gamma radiation.

Its penetrating power is great: gamma radiation easily penetrates clothing and living tissues. But it is much more difficult for him to pass through the metal. A thick layer of concrete or steel can stop this type of radiation.

The main danger of gamma radiation is that it can travel very long distances, while exerting a strong effect on the body hundreds of meters from the radiation source.

x-ray radiation

It is understood as electromagnetic radiation, which has the form of photons. X-ray radiation occurs when an electron moves from one atomic orbit to another. According to its characteristics, such radiation is similar to gamma radiation. But its penetrating power is not so great, because the wavelength in this case is longer.

One source of X-rays is the Sun; however, the planet's atmosphere provides sufficient protection against this effect.