The influence of the teachings of paracelsus on modern medicine. What was the medicine of Paracelsus

The Swiss doctor and warlock of the Middle Ages, Philippi Aureol Theophrastus Bombast von Hohenheim (Philippi Theophrasti Bombast von Hohenheim Paracelsi) was a stranger to modesty. For example, to let everyone know that he considers himself equal to the great physician of antiquity Celsus, he added a Greek prefix to his name (“para” means “similar”) and called himself Paracelsus.

On a cloudy and cold day on November 10, 1493, Paracelsus was born in the small village of Maria Einsiedeln, canton of Schwyz, two hours' walk from Zurich. His mother, the warden of the almshouse at the Benedictine abbey in Einsiedeln, married Wilhelm Bombast von Hohenheim, a doctor at this almshouse. He belonged to an old noble Swabian family; was an educated physician, had a good library. After her marriage, she left for Villach, since, according to existing rules, married woman could not hold the post of warden.

The family of Paracelsus lived in poverty, in his childhood he suffered hardships and hunger more than once. Whether he went to school is not clear from his autobiography. In one of his writings, Paracelsus mentioned that his father taught him to read and understand alchemy. Most likely, according to biographers, he received his education on his own. Paracelsus did not care about book education, he even boasted that he had not opened books for 10 years. He collected medical knowledge bit by bit, not disdaining to learn from old women who knew how to prepare a drink to treat the wounded, from barbers, gypsies and even executioners, he acquired recipes for potions unknown to university scientists. This knowledge allowed him to become a skilled healer.

In his book "On Women's Diseases" (the first essay on this subject), Paracelsus took advantage of the knowledge of witches, women who were known as experienced midwives. In those days, not a single woman went to the doctor with her illness, did not consult with him, did not trust him with her secrets. The witch knew these secrets more than others and was the only doctor for women. With regard to the medicine of witches, it can certainly be said that for their healing on a large scale they used an extensive family of plants, not without reason called "comfort herbs."

Having a great propensity for exaggerations of the most incredible nature, Paracelsus assured that he had thoroughly studied all alchemical knowledge. In 1526, having appeared in Zurich, this extravagant choleric amazed the townspeople not only with his torn and dirty clothes, obscenities and drunkenness, but also with lengthy discussions about magic and his medical art. But there is no prophet in his own country. He had to leave for Basel, where in 1527, with the help of his flexible mind, which manifested itself in the field of combating diseases, he received the position of city doctor from the municipality.

Soon Paracelsus claims a professorship with good pay at the University of Basel. The university management put forward a counter condition for him - to present a diploma and a degree. Paracelsus did not fulfill the requirement, since he did not possess either one or the other. The recommendations and patronage of the municipality helped Paracelsus get around these requirements and achieve his goal.

Latin remained until the middle of the 19th century the international language of biology and medicine. In this language, scientists were required to write scientific papers, conduct teaching, and discuss at scientific conferences. Those who did not know Latin were not respected and were not allowed into the learned society. Paracelsus did not know the Latin language, he wrote his compositions in German. Therefore, he aroused the hostile attitude of the scientific community, who considers him an upstart. By the way, his contemporary, the famous French surgeon, who came out of the barbers, Ambroise Pare also violated traditions: he wrote his essays in colloquial French. But not only ignorance of the scientific language hindered the career of Paracelsus. By the way, Paracelsus' ignorance of the Latin language excludes the fact of his studying at any university, which some authors claim.

To be honest, Paracelsus was not distinguished by sobriety and sometimes half-drunk read his lectures. This was not least the reason for his harsh statements. Thus, he declared to his listeners that his "shoes are more versed in medicine than these authoritative doctors of antiquity." For such intransigence, he was nicknamed Kakofrast1 instead of Theophrastus in Germany, and Luther at the University of Paris. “No,” exclaims Paracelsus, “I am not Luther, I am Theophrastus, whom in Basel you call Cacophrastes in derision. I am higher than Luther, he was only a theologian, and I know medicine, philosophy, astronomy, alchemy. Luther is not worthy to untie my shoelaces."

Having brought chemistry closer to medicine, Paracelsus, thus, was the first iatrochemist (from the Greek “yatro” - doctor), that is, the first doctor who used chemistry in his medical practice. A.I. Herzen called him "the first professor of chemistry since the creation of the world". Paracelsus introduced many new things into the doctrine of medicines; studied the therapeutic effect of various chemical elements, compounds. In addition to introducing new chemical medicines into practice, he also revised herbal medicines, began to isolate and use medicines from plants in the form of tinctures, extracts and elixirs. Paracelsus even created the doctrine of the signs of nature - "signature", or "signa naturale". Its meaning is that nature, having marked plants with its signs, as if she herself pointed out to a person some of them. Thus, plants with heart-shaped leaves are an excellent heart remedy, and if the leaf resembles a kidney in shape, it should be used in diseases of the kidneys. The doctrine of the signature existed within medicine until the moment when chemicals with a therapeutic effect began to be isolated from plants and carefully studied. Gradually, with the development of chemistry, it was possible to reveal the secrets of many plants. The first victory of science was the discovery of the secret of the soporific poppy.

In pharmacology, Paracelsus developed a new idea for his time about the dosage of drugs: “Everything is poison and nothing deprives poisonousness. The dose alone makes the poison invisible." Paracelsus used mineral springs for medicinal purposes. He claimed that universal remedy from all diseases does not exist, and pointed to the need to search for specific drugs against individual diseases (for example, mercury against syphilis). He pointed out that syphilis (called the "French disease") is sometimes complicated by paralysis. The views of Paracelsus did not have any influence on the development of neurology, although he tried to study the causes of contractures and paralysis and develop their therapy. He treated with golden medicine (its composition is unknown) paralysis, epilepsy, fainting. He also treated epilepsy with zinc oxide. Mineral springs he treated lumbago and sciatica.

The innovation of Paracelsus manifested itself in the creation of a chemical theory of body functions. All diseases, he believed, come from a disorder of chemical processes, therefore, only those drugs that are made chemically can be of the greatest benefit in treatment. He was the first to widely use chemical elements for treatment: antimony, lead, mercury and gold. It is worth saying that the follower of Paracelsus Andreas Libavius ​​(1540-1616), a German chemist and physician, was against the extremes of the iatrochemical teachings of Paracelsus. In his book "Alchemy" (1595), he systematically presented the information on chemistry known at that time; first described a method for producing sulfuric acid by burning sulfur in the presence of saltpeter, the first to give a method for producing tin tetrachloride.

“The doctor's theory is experience. No one will become a doctor without knowledge and experience,” Paracelsus argued and maliciously ridiculed those who “sit behind the stove all their lives, surrounding themselves with books, and sailing on the same ship - the ship of fools.” Paracelsus rejected the teachings of the ancients about the four juices human body and believed that the processes occurring in the body are chemical processes. He avoided his colleagues, calling them sputum-makers (humorists), and did not agree with the prescriptions of pharmacists. Paracelsus reprimanded the doctors in his usual defiant manner: “You, who studied Hippocrates, Galen, Avicenna, imagine that you know everything, while in essence you know nothing; you prescribe medicines but don't know how to prepare them! Chemistry alone can solve the problems of physiology, pathology, therapeutics; outside of chemistry you wander in the dark. You physicians of the whole world, Italians, Frenchmen, Greeks, Sarmatians, Arabs, Jews, must all follow me, and I must not follow you. If you don’t stick to my banner in all sincerity, then it’s not even worth being a place for dogs to defecate.”

The militant Paracelsus, as a sign of contempt for the past of medicine and distrust of the prevailing views, resorted to a symbolic act: on June 27, 1527, in front of the University of Basel, he burned the works of Hippocrates, Galen and Avicenna. Forced to leave Basel, Paracelsus left, accompanied by a crowd of students who believed that their idol possessed the philosopher's stone (Lapis philosophorum). This magical heart of alchemy was attributed, in addition to the ability to turn metals into gold, also healing power, the ability to cure all diseases. "Red Lion", "magisterium", "great elixir", "panacea of ​​life", "red tincture" and other titles, which called the "philosopher's stone" in the dark alchemical manuscripts, are something more than an absolute catalyst. Miraculous properties were attributed to him, comparable only to the manifestation of divine power.

It was intended not only to ennoble or "heal" metals - the emanations of planetary principles, but also to serve as a universal medicine. His solution, diluted to the concentration of the so-called aurum potabile - "golden drink", ensured the cure of all ailments, complete rejuvenation and prolongation of life for any period. Everyone, thus, could gain the desired longevity, revive the dead, penetrate into the innermost secrets of nature. To do this, it was only necessary to take possession of the "magisterium". In addition, the philosopher's stone was understood symbolically as an internal transformation, the transition of the soul from a state in which the material principle predominates, to spiritual enlightenment, knowledge of the Absolute.

Paracelsus wrote about his travels in Europe in the book "Great Surgery" (2 books, 1536). In 1529 he came to Nuremberg in an attempt to find work. There he became famous for the free treatment of patients, whom everyone refused. And again he had a conflict with the doctors.

A story has come down to us that happened to Canon Cornelius, who suffered from a stomach ailment and promised 100 florins to the deliverer. Paracelsus helped him, but the canon's gratitude also faded with his illness. Paracelsus sued Cornelius. Taking advantage of the judicial routine, Cornelius fell from a sick head to a healthy one. When, indignant at the ingratitude of the healed, Paracelsus began to shout at the judges and insult them, the court decided to apply repressive sanctions against him. Paracelsus fled to Colmar.

In the Czech Republic, everything went wrong. After two deaths of his patients, he thought it best to retire. He returned to his native Villach, where his father lived. The health of Paracelsus, as a result of a restless way of life, was very upset. It was said that he settled in Salzburg and soon died, turning before his death to catholic faith. It happened in the 48th year of life, September 24, 1541.

According to the archivist of the Salzburg hospital, the property of the deceased consisted of two gold chains, several rings and medals, several boxes with powders, ointments and chemical devices and reagents. He left behind the Bible, the Gospel, and an index of Bible quotations. He bequeathed the silver goblet to the monastery in Switzerland, where his mother lived. The cup is still kept in this monastery. It is said that the metal of the goblet was created by Paracelsus himself. He bequeathed ointments and his books on medicine to the local Salzburg barber (they were also surgeons in those days).

The opinions of scientists regarding the theories of Paracelsus were extremely different: some considered him a reformer of everything scientific knowledge, others - a fanatic, a demagogue, a troublemaker, anyone, but not a reformer. However, it should be recognized that neither the lack of modesty nor the eccentricity of Paracelsus overshadows his merits: without knowledge of the great systems of antiquity, he created his own philosophy and medicine and it is no coincidence that he is ranked among the cohort of great scientists of all times.

Paracelsus wrote 9 works, but only 3 of them saw the light during his lifetime. The most complete collected works of Paracelsus were published in 1589 in Basel in 10 parts. In it, he condemns the explanation of natural phenomena by the influence of secret forces and expresses the principle: be silent if you cannot find the reason. It is amazing that, having no classical knowledge, bookish erudition, Paracelsus nevertheless had a tremendous influence on the medicine of his age, criticizing the old principles and refuting the classical authorities.

The name Paracelsus has become one of the symbols of medicine. The Paracelsus Medal is the highest award that a doctor could receive in the GDR.

In the article "Paracelsus: biography, Interesting Facts and video" - briefly about the life of the famous Swiss alchemist, physician, philosopher of the Renaissance.

Paracelsus: biography briefly

This one was born a famous person in October 1493 near Zurich (Switzerland). The real name of our hero sounds like this: Philip Aureol Theophrastus Bombast von Hohenheim, and Paracelsus (Paracelsus) is a pseudonym.

Apparently, Philip did not suffer from modesty or was confident in his future successes when he called himself Paracelsus. He added the prefix "para", meaning "similar", to the name of the famous Roman Platonist philosopher Celsus (2nd century).

Philip's father was a good doctor and came from an old but impoverished noble family. Mother worked as a nurse in the abbey. In a medical family, Phillippe received an excellent education in the field of medicine and philosophy. The family lived very modestly, but had a good library.

At the age of 16, the guy already knew the basics of surgery and alchemy. Soon Paracelsus leaves his father's house and goes to the University of Basel.

Then he acquired valuable knowledge of astrology, alchemy and magic from the famous abbot Johann Trithemius. Paracelsus received his university education in Ferrara (Italy), where he was awarded the degree of Doctor of Medicine.

Trips

Paracelsus traveled a lot, continuing to study medicine and alchemy. He took part in military expeditions, served as a military surgeon. The thirst for knowledge never left him. He collected useful information not only from scientists from other countries, but also communicating with barbers, soothsayers, midwives, shepherds and executioners.

After ten years of wandering, with a lot of experience and knowledge, he returned to Basel, becoming a city doctor and university professor.

His unique lectures attracted many listeners. Paracelsus criticized scholastic medicine and publicly burned the medical textbook of ancient scientists. The number of his opponents among pharmacists and doctors continued to grow. Soon Paracelsus leaves Basel to escape trial for free-thinking.

He again had to wander around the countries. Finally, in Salzburg (Austria), he found his patron - the archbishop. Paracelsus settled in this city and spent the last years of his life, dying (presumably from a violent death) at the age of 48.

Contribution to medicine

• He forced his students to study the course of diseases in practice, and not from books. Paracelsus led the students to the beds of the sick.
• He brought chemistry closer to medicine. He is the first iatrochemist (from the Greek "iatro" - a doctor), that is, a doctor who uses chemistry in his medical practice.
• He suggested that alchemists focus their efforts on the development of new drugs, and surgeons should think more not about increasing the speed of painful operations, but about painkillers and decontamination of wounds.
• He based his healing on the alchemical doctrine of the three basic substances that are part of all the bodies of nature: mercury, sulfur and salt. In a healthy body, these substances are in balance. If one of them prevails over the others or is in insufficient quantity, then diseases arise.
• He introduced into practice the use of preparations of copper, mercury, antimony and arsenic.
• He isolated medicines from plants and used them in the form of extracts, extracts and elixirs.
• Developed an idea about the dosage of drugs.
• Used mineral springs for medicinal purposes.

Philosophy and astronomy

Paracelsus wrote treatises:

• 1531 - "Great Astronomy";
• 1533 - "Secret Philosophy";
• 1534 - "Philosophy";
• 1536 - "A book about nymphs, sylphs, pygmies, salamanders, giants and other spirits."

Video

This video is interesting and Additional Information on the topic "Paracelsus: biography"

The medicine of Galen and the medicine of the sorcerer Paracelsus.
Paracelsus (Theophrastus Bombast von Hohenheim) (1493-1541) Swiss physician and naturalist. Subjected to a critical revision of the ideas of ancient medicine. He was among the initiators of the use of chemical medicinal preparations in medicine. Considered one of the founders modern science. Paracelsus was born into the family of a doctor who came from an old but impoverished noble family. The first teacher of Paracelsus was his father, who introduced him to the basics of medical art. In Wurzburg, with the abbot Johann Trithemius, Paracelsus studied the Kabbalah. Here is what he writes in Paragranum: “Study Kabbalah, it will explain everything to you. All physics, including all its particular sciences: astronomy, astrology, pyromancy, haomancy, hydromancy, geomancy, alchemy… – they are all matrices of the noble science of Kabbalistics.” Compiled astrological calendars.

Paracelsus received his university education in Ferrara, where he was awarded the degree of Doctor of Medicine.
Received extensive experience as a military doctor; published little during his lifetime. He traveled a lot in Europe, treated, researched, performed alchemical experiments, and made astrological observations. He wrote and taught not in Latin, but in German.
Paracelsus invented several effective medicines. One of his major achievements is the explanation of the nature and causes of silicosis (an occupational disease of miners). In 1534, he helped stop an outbreak of plague by resorting to measures that resembled vaccination.
Paracelsus is considered the forerunner of modern pharmacology, he owns the phrase: “Everything is poison, and nothing is devoid of poisonousness; one dose makes the poison invisible.
He is credited with being the first to discover the principle of similarity, which is at the heart of modern homeopathy.
The powerful influence and unique spiritual warehouse of Paracelsus, to a greater or lesser extent, affected the course of development of European philosophy, natural science, medicine, influencing the mystical concepts of J. Boehme, the natural philosophical views of Ya.B. Gelmont and F.M. Gelmont, on the teachings of G.V. Leibniz on monads (“life spirits”), the work of I.V. Goethe, F.W.I. Schelling and Novalis, as well as the "philosophy of life" L. Klages.

Table of therapeutic bloodletting created by Paracelsus:

Philip Aureol Theophrastus Bombast von Hohenheim, better known as Paracelsus:

“Monarchy over all the arts was granted to me, Paracelsus, Prince of Philosophy and Medicine. I have been chosen by God to exterminate all fantasies of far-fetched and deceitful works, deceitful and presumptuous words, whether the words of Aristotle, Galen, Avicenna or any of their followers. From the manifesto of Philip Aureol Theophrastus Bombast von Hohenheim (1493-1541)

In 1527, invited to the University of Basel for the post of doctor of medicine, he at the very first lecture burned the works of Galen and Avicenna.

It seemed there is no disease that Paracelsus would not be able to cure. His opium tincture served as an effective pain reliever for centuries. He treated syphilis with small doses of poisonous mercury vapor, but few believed him. Only 400 years later, a new cure for syphilis appeared based on poisonous arsenic.

Unlike barbers who bled, healed wounds, and, in case of failure, resorted to amputation, Paracelsus simply cleaned and dried wounds, believing that the healing power of the body would do the rest. In spite of high level success, this approach did not catch on until the 19th century. Paracelsus (primarily as a practitioner) stressed the importance of doctor-patient contact. Knowing about the placebo effect, he used it for good.

Paracelsus was the first to realize that the cause of miners' illnesses was dust, not underground spirits. He was the first to come to the conclusion that Graves' disease causes drinking water. And he was the first to say that madness is a disease, not a possession by the devil and therefore patients require humane treatment.

Libraries Paracelsus preferred taverns, where he often drank everyone. Dismissed from one university post, he gladly became a wandering doctor. But still Paracelsus did the impossible. After the publication of a number of his works, including the famous "Great Surgery", the scientific world with a scratch recognized him as a talented scientist and physician.

In 1541 the Duke of Bavaria offered him a new position. Autumn Paracelsus found dead in a Salzburg tavern. Even the cause of death of the mysterious healer at the age of 47 is ambiguous. According to some rumors, he was killed in a drunken fight, according to others, he was poisoned by enemies. There is another version: Paracelsus, having made a will, died a few days later from heart disease. The death of Paracelsus did not mean the end. Recognition came late, perhaps too late, but it came.

Kabbalist and mystic, he believed that the entire macrocosm around us is represented in the microcosm of consciousness, and the brain, a mold of the Universe, can reveal all its secrets. This belief in a miracle was higher than herbs and minerals. He wrote about swords capable of cutting an anvil in two; about spells that make bodies invisible; magical means of communication a hundred miles away; about nymphs, sylphs and gnomes…

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Galen- Roman (Greek origin) physician, surgeon and philosopher.
Galen made significant contributions to the understanding of many scientific disciplines, including anatomy, physiology, pathology, pharmacology, and neurology, as well as philosophy and logic.

Common spelling of the name as Claudius Galen(lat. Claudius Galenus) appears only in the Renaissance and is not recorded in manuscripts; it is believed that this is an erroneous decoding of the abbreviation Cl.(Clarissimus).

The son of a wealthy architect, Galen received an excellent education, traveled widely, collecting a lot of medical information. Having settled in Rome, he healed the Roman nobility, eventually becoming the personal physician of several Roman emperors.

His theories dominated European medicine for 1300 years. His anatomy, based on the dissection of monkeys and pigs, was used until the appearance in 1543 of the work "On the structure of the human body" by Andreas Vesalius, his theory of blood circulation lasted until 1628, when William Harvey published his work "Anatomical study of the movement of the heart and blood in animals ”, in which he described the role of the heart in blood circulation. Medical students studied Galen until the 19th century. His theory that the brain controls movement through nervous system relevant today.

Galen was convinced of the need for diet, exercise, hygiene and prevention, studied anatomy, the treatment of fractures and severe injuries, calling injuries "windows of the body." During his work, only 5 gladiators died, compared with 60 under his predecessor, which indicates the great attention that Galen paid to their injuries. At the same time, he continued to study theoretical medicine and philosophy.

Treatment according to Galen - the right diet and medicines. In contrast to Hippocrates, Galen argued that in medicines of plant and animal origin there are useful and ballast substances, that is, he first introduced the concept of active substances. Galen treated with extracts from plants, widely used syrups, wines, a mixture of vinegar and honey, etc.

In his writings, Galen mentioned 304 plants, 80 animals, and 60 minerals.

Galen was of the opinion that medicinal plants, which even in his time made up the bulk of the arsenal of medicines, there are two "beginnings". One of them has a therapeutic effect on the sick organism, the other is useless or even harmful to the organism. The active principle prefers liquid to the dried plant, so it is easy to separate it from the useless one. To do this, plant materials should be infused or boiled with water, wine or other liquid suitable for ingestion, which was then used as a medicine.

Paracelsus and his contribution to the development of pharmacy is summarized in this article.

Paracelsus contribution to medicine

The full name of Paracelsus is as follows - Philip Aureol Theophrastus Bombast von Hohenheim Paracelsus. There were legends about him, as if the healer knew how to grow pearls and gems, make the elixir of youth and gold, travel on a flying horse through the air. He called himself "the holy doctor". But it is difficult to judge this, so let's focus on his achievements in medicine.

Paracelsus was the first physician to used minerals and chemicals in medicine. He was a fan of alchemy and believed that disease and health in the body depended on the harmony of nature and man. He was also of the opinion that there are remains of fossils in the human body, so some ailments can be cured by chemical agents.

Paracelsus developed a hermetic idea in which the macrocosm of the universe exists in every person and is called the microcosm. The healer created the microcosm-macrocosm theory, based on the interaction of the cosmos and man. He believed that all diseases are caused by poisons that came to Earth from the stars. But they are not necessarily negative, it all depends on the dose of its effect on the human body. Such ailments can be cured by taking the same star poison, contained in minerals, herbs and chemical combinations. Such views of Paracelsus were contrary to the Church.

His main job"Die große Wundarzney" laid the foundation for the future development of antiseptics. Although it is not historically proven that Paracelsus was the first to use opium as an anesthetic, it is assumed that he was one of the first. The physician used opium to treat the wounds of soldiers.

His most underestimated achievement in medicine is the systematic study of the healing properties of mineral alpine springs and minerals. Paracelsus believed that alchemy was needed not only to make silver and gold, but also to study the power of medicines. The healers of that time were sure of the following: all ailments are caused by an imbalance of 4 humors - sputum, blood, yellow bile and black bile. To achieve a balance of humors, it is necessary to carry out bloodletting and adhere to a specific diet that cleanses the stomach of the body from decomposed juices. And Paracelsus argued the following - diseases are caused by external agents that attack the body. He spoke out against bloodletting, since this process destroys the harmony in the system, besides, the blood cannot be cleansed if its amount is reduced. With these views, he hostilely set the leading healers against him.

Paracelsus also disproved the prevailing theory that infection is a natural part of wound healing. The doctor advocated the protection and cleanliness of wounds, the regulation of the diet. He is credited with substantiating the hereditary nature of syphilis. In his brochure, he described the clinic of syphilis and the method of its treatment with doses of mercury.

Besides, Paracelsus is called the father of toxicology. In his work “Dose Makes Poison”, the healer considered such substances, although toxic, but harmless in small doses. Conversely, harmless toxic substances can become lethal if consumed in excessive doses.

Also Paracelsus contributed to and psychotherapy- he was the first to scientifically describe unconscious processes as a source of diseases in adults and children. The instrument of psychotherapy was the same alchemy. Another important discovery of the doctor is hydrogen gas, a by-product from the action of acids on metals.

We hope that from this article you have learned what contribution Paracelsus made to medicine.

Paracelsus (Paracelsus)
(Philip Aureol Theophrastus Bombast von Hohenheim; von Hohenheim)

The famous medieval physician and alchemist Paracelsus was born in the town of Einsiedeln (Canton of Schwyz, Switzerland) in the family of a doctor. Following the example of his father, Paracelsus began to study medicine - in Germany, France and Italy. In 1515, he received the degree of doctor of medicine in Florence, after which he wandered around Europe, continuing to study medicine and alchemy.

In 1526 Paracelsus became a university professor and city doctor in Basel; at the university, he lectured in German instead of traditional Latin, which was then an unheard of audacity. His lectures attracted many listeners and became widely known; at the same time, Paracelsus made many enemies among doctors and pharmacists, since in his lectures he sharply opposed scholastic medicine and blind reverence for the authority of Galen; publicly burned a textbook of medicine, written on the basis of the ideas of ancient scientists. In 1528, Paracelsus had to leave Basel, where he was threatened with trial for freethinking. In the last years of his life, he again wandered around the cities of Alsace, Bavaria, Switzerland, even visited Prussia, Poland and Lithuania, and finally settled in Salzburg, where he found a powerful patron in the person of the Archbishop and Count Palatine of the Rhine. Here he died in 1541 (according to some reports, a violent death).

Paracelsus resolutely rejected the teachings of the ancients about the four juices of the human body and believed that all processes occurring in the body are chemical processes. He distinguishes four main groups of causes of diseases, which he calls entia: 1) ens astrale– cosmic and atmospheric influences, 2) ens naturale- the reasons that lie in the anatomical and physiological properties of the body; they fall into two main groups: ens veneni- poisonous substances in food and drink and ens seminis- hereditary anomalies; 3) ens spirituale– psychic influences and 4) ens Deale- God's permission.

Paracelsus based his therapy on the alchemical doctrine of the three principles; he taught that three material principles participate in the composition of a living body, which are part of all bodies of nature ( tria prima): mercury, sulfur and salt. In a healthy body, these principles are in balance; if one of them prevails over the others or is not in sufficient quantity, then various diseases arise.

Paracelsus studied the therapeutic effect of various chemical elements and compounds, introduced the practice of using preparations of copper, mercury, antimony and arsenic; isolated medicines from plants and applied them in the form of tinctures, extracts and elixirs; developed a new idea for that time about the dosage of drugs, used mineral springs for medicinal purposes. He pointed to the need to find and use specific drugs against certain diseases (for example, mercury against syphilis). Paracelsus brought together chemistry and medical science, therefore the teaching of Paracelsus and his followers is called iatrochemistry: “Chemistry is one of the pillars on which medical science should be based. The task of chemistry is not at all to make gold and silver, but to prepare medicines.”

The views of Paracelsus and his practical activities, however, are permeated with medieval mysticism. His system is a combination of mystical confusion with individual bright thoughts, clothed in a scholastic-kabalistic form. Paracelsus did not deny the possibility of making a philosopher's stone; in his writings you can find a detailed recipe for the preparation of a homunculus. The most important part of his medicine, he considered the doctrine of "archaea" - the highest spiritual principle, allegedly regulating the vital activity of the body.