The primacy of the creation of a scientific psychological concept belongs to. Human psychological concepts

1.1. Behaviorism

1.2. Psychodynamic approach

1.3. Cognitive approach

1.4. Humanistic approach

1.5. Psychogenetic approach

1.1. Behaviorism

Behaviorism shaped the American psychologist of the century. Its founder John Watson (1878-1958) formulated the credo of behaviorism: "The subject of psychology is behavior." Hence the name - from the English behavior - behavior (behaviorism can be translated as behavioral psychology). The analysis of behavior should be strictly objective in nature and be limited to externally observable reactions (everything that does not lend itself to objective registration is not subject to study, that is, thoughts, human consciousness cannot be studied, they cannot be measured, registered). Everything that happens inside a person is impossible to study, that is, a person acts as a "black box". Objectively, it is possible to study and register only the reactions, external actions of a person and those stimuli, situations that these reactions cause. And the task of psychology is to determine the probable stimulus by the reaction, and to predict a certain reaction by the stimulus.

A person in the concept of behaviorism is understood primarily as a reacting, acting, learning being, programmed for certain reactions, actions, behavior. By changing incentives and rewards, you can program a person for the desired behavior.

1.2. Psychodynamic approach

At the beginning of the XX century. in psychology there was a direction psychoanalysis, or Freudianism, which determined the development of the psychodynamic approach. 3. Freud introduced into psychology a number of important topics: unconscious motivation, defense mechanisms of the psyche, the role of sexuality v her, the influence of childhood mental trauma on behavior in adulthood, etc. However, his closest students came to the conclusion that it is not sexual desires, for the most part, but a feeling of inferiority and the need to compensate for this defect (A. Adler), or the collective unconscious (archetypes), which has absorbed the common human experience (K. Jung), determine the mental development of the individual.

The psychoanalytic direction drew increased attention to the study of unconscious mental processes. Thus, the psychodynamic approach also included the following psychoanalytic concepts: A. Adler's individual psychology; K. Jung's analytical psychology; ego psychology of E. Erickson and others.

1.3. Cognitive approach

The word "cognitive" comes from the Latin verb - to know. Proponents of this approach argue that a person is not a machine that blindly and mechanically reacts to internal factors or to events of the external world, on the contrary, more is available to the human mind: to analyze information about reality, make comparisons, make decisions, solve problems facing him every minute.

Cognitive focus emphasizes the influence of intellectual or thought processes on human behavior.

1.4. Humanistic approach

Humanistic psychology- its most prominent representatives, G. Allport, G. A. Murray, G. Murphy, C. Rogers, A. Maslow, consider the healthy creative personality of a person to be the subject of psychological research.

The goal of such a person is not the need for homeostasis, as psychoanalysis believes, but self-realization, self-actualization, the growth of the constructive beginning of the human "I". A person is open to the world, endowed with the potential for continuous development and self-realization. Love, creativity, growth, higher values, meaning - it is these and similar concepts that characterize the basic needs of a person. As V. Frankl notes, the author of the concept of logotherapy, in the absence or loss of interest in life, a person experiences boredom, indulges in vice, he is struck by severe failures.

1.5. Psychogenetic approach

This approach is very interesting from the point of view of Dr. Champion Kurt Teutsch. His concept that the genetic code even before a person is born determines most of his life prospects and basic patterns of behavior, is gradually gaining acceptance in scientific circles. DNA molecules carry not only the genetic code of the inherited biological and physiological characteristics of the organism, predisposition to certain diseases, but also the genetic code that determines the patterns of behavior, the predisposition to certain problems, events, life difficulties. Along with information about appearance, DNA stores information about the experience and life roles of ancestors. Each person has their own unique Main Internal Direction (OVN)- a combination of genetic, unconscious and conscious factors, in accordance with which he moves through life, gains experience and plays his roles, regardless of his conscious reactions and interpretations.

Conscious and unconscious thoughts in the physical plane are energy radiation, an energy wave (as physicists suggest, thought is an energy wave of virtual photons- the smallest nuclear particles). Radiation from the brain is not limited in time and space. The energy waves of thoughts of each person have their own specific amplitude, intensity, frequency range. There is a psychic interaction between people at an unconscious level, since the information-energy radiation of one person's thoughts is able to penetrate and have some kind of influence on the unconscious part of the psyche of another person.

Thus, both conscious and unconscious desires, beliefs, experiences, thoughts of a person, in addition to the subjective inner state, always receive objective expression in different forms: 1 - energy radiation-wave; 2 - human actions; 3 - a person can externally express conscious thoughts, desires through words; 4 - ultimately, thoughts can be expressed externally and through objects, for example, the thought of a designer is ultimately embodied, objectified in a specific object, product, invention.

Concept (from Lat. Conceptio - understanding, system) - a certain way of understanding an object, phenomenon or process; main point of view on the subject; a guiding idea for their systematic coverage. Scientific theories emerge from concepts. The theory is based on an idealized object - theoretical model existing connections of reality, represented with the help of certain hypothetical assumptions and idealizations. The value of the theory is, first of all, that by explaining the phenomena, it makes it possible to predict the development of events in a given area and provides tools for creative control of reality. For psychology, this means describing the directions and ways of solving the psychological problems of individuals and society as a whole.

Behaviorism

The founder is the American scientist John Watson (1878 - 1958), who proposed to consider behavior as a subject of psychology, and consider mental phenomena as unknowable using natural scientific methods. As Watson wrote, the behaviorist "does not observe anything that he might call consciousness, feeling, sensation, imagination, will, insofar as he no longer believes that these terms indicate the true phenomena of psychology." For cognition of behavior, it is enough to describe the behavior itself, to find out and describe the external and internal forces acting on the body, to study the laws according to which the interaction of stimuli and behavior occurs. In the 1930s, such Watson's views were softened by non-behaviourists, most notably Edward Tolman (1886-1959) and Clark Hull (1884-1952). Tolman led the concept of rationality and appropriateness of behavior. The most important psychological phenomena, according to Tolman, are purpose, expectation, hypothesis, cognitive picture of the world, sign and its meaning. Hull developed a model of behavior based on responses to a variety of stimuli. The body responds to stimuli using innate and acquired ways that are associated with a system of "intermediate variables" that mediate this interaction. Thus, behaviorism does not study human consciousness, believing that psychology must explain behavior by examining the stimuli entering the body and outgoing behavioral responses. The theory of learning proceeds from this thesis, which is based on the use of all kinds of punishments and reinforcements when it is necessary to form appropriate reactions, thanks to which the theory is still popular, primarily among American psychologists (Berres Frederick Skinner (1904 - 1990)).

Gestalt psychology

It originated in Germany and spread almost throughout Europe, including Russia, especially in the pre-war years. This direction was influenced by sciences such as physics and mathematics. Outstanding representatives are Kurt Lewin (1890 - 1947), Max Wertheimer (1880 - 1943), Wolfgang Koehler (1887 - 1967) and others. Gestalt psychology studies not phenomena, but the structure of connections, therefore it is sometimes called structural psychology. Integral structures (gestalts), in principle, cannot be deduced from their constituent components; they have their own characteristics and laws, in particular, the "law of grouping", "the law of relation" (figure / background). The construction of a complex mental image occurs in the insight - a special mental act of instant grasping of relations (structure) in the perceived field. Gestalt psychology arose out of the study of perception. In the center of her attention is the characteristic tendency of the psyche to organize experience into an understandable whole. For example, when we perceive letters with "holes" (missing parts), the consciousness seeks to fill the gap, and we recognize the whole letter. Levin believed that the behavior of a person can be understood only on the basis of the integral situation in which this person finds himself. The environment is determined by the subjective perception of the people acting in it. Gestalt psychology changed the previous view of consciousness, proving that its analysis is designed to deal not with individual elements, but with integral mental images. Gestalt psychology opposed associative psychology, which dismembers consciousness into elements. The law of pregnancies was postulated as the basic law of grouping of individual elements (one of the key concepts of gestalt psychology, meaning the completeness of gestalts that have acquired a balanced state, "good shape").

Psychoanalysis

Developed by the Austrian psychologist and psychiatrist Sigmund Freud (1856 - 1939), therefore it is sometimes called "Freudianism". Founding the scientific theoretical direction in psychology, Freud proceeded from the analysis of his rich psychotherapeutic practice, thereby, as it were, returning psychology to its original subject: penetration into the essence of the human soul. The fundamental concepts of psychoanalysis are consciousness and the unconscious. It is the unconscious that is assigned a significant role in the regulation of human activity and behavior. Unconscious ideas hardly pass into consciousness, practically remaining unconscious due to the work of two mechanisms - the mechanisms of repression and resistance. Freud identified three layers of the psyche: Id (it) is an unconscious, irrational part of the psyche, Ego (I) is a conscious part of the psyche, is in contact with the outside world through perception, reacts to the influences of the environment, Superego (superego) is a part of the psyche, formed under the influence of the community and including conscience, shame, etc. Censorship from the side of consciousness suppresses unconscious drives, but they "break through" in the form of reservations, mistakes, unpleasant forgetting, dreams, and neurotic manifestations. Human conflicts are generated mainly by the contradiction between the needs of the individual and the cultural needs of the community. Psychoanalysis became widespread not only in Europe, but also in the United States, where it is still popular. In the first years of Soviet power, this direction was also in demand in our country, but in the 1930s, against the general background of restrictions on psychological research, Freud's teachings were also subjected to repression. Until the 1960s, psychoanalysis was studied only critically. Only in the second half of the twentieth century, interest in psychoanalysis increased again, not only in Russia, but throughout the world.

Cognitive psychology

It arose on the basis of the development of computer science and cybernetics. Representatives of the cognitive school - Jean Piaget (1896 - 1980), Ulrik Neisser (1928), Jerome Seymour Bruner (1915), Richard Atkinson (1929), etc. For the cognitive scientist, human cognitive processes are analogous to a computer. Unlike Freudians, cognitivists argue that all mental phenomena are cognitive phenomena and can be described in terms of the logic of cognition and information processing processes.

The main thing is to understand how a person learns the world, and for this, it is necessary to study the ways of forming knowledge, how cognitive processes arise and develop, what is the role of knowledge in human behavior, how this knowledge is organized in memory, how intelligence functions, how the word and image are related in the memory and thinking of a person. As the basic concept of cognitive psychology, the concept of "schema" is used, which is a plan for collecting and processing information, perceived by the senses and stored in the head of a person. The scheme acts as a mechanism for the implementation of a family of similar actions. The interaction of the schemes determines the dynamics of the course of cognitive processes. The main conclusion reached by representatives of this trend is that in many life situations a person makes decisions mediated by the peculiarities of thinking.

Humanistic psychology

Its most prominent representatives Gordon Allport (1897 - 1967), Henry Murray (1893 - 1988), Karl Rogers (1902 - 1987), Abraham Maslow (1908 - 1970) consider the healthy creative personality of a person to be the subject of psychological research. The goal of such a person is not the need for homeostasis, as psychoanalysis believes, but self-realization, self-actualization, the growth of the constructive beginning of the human "I". A person is open to the world, endowed with the potential for continuous development and self-realization. Love, creativity, growth, higher values, meaning - it is these and similar concepts that characterize the basic needs of a person. One of the directions of humanistic psychology is logotherapy, developed by Viktor Frankl (1905 - 1997). The main driver of behavior and personality development is the desire of a person to find and realize the meaning of his life. The lack of meaning in life or the inability to realize it gives rise to a state of existential vacuum and existential frustration, which is the cause of the so-called noogenic neuroses associated with apathy, depression and a loss of interest in life, as well as the desire to minimize internal stress. Simply put, in the absence of interest in life, a person experiences boredom, indulges in vice, and severe failures hit him.

Theory - it is a system of interrelated ideas, constructions and principles, aimed at explaining various observations of reality.

Personality theory - these are carefully verified inferences or hypotheses about what a person is, how he behaves and why he acts this way and not otherwise.

A key component in any theory of personality is the concept of personality development and the question of how the motivational aspects of personality functioning change from infancy to maturity and old age, as well as the identification of factors (genetic or environmental) that affect personality. The provisions of a particular theory are deeply and fundamentally influenced by the author's views on the nature of personality. Personality theory provides a semantic context in which it becomes possible to describe and interpret human behavior.

Various personality theories can be reduced to the following classification (see R. S. Nemov).

Behaviorism (eng. behavior- behavior). The founder of behaviorism J. Watson (1878 - 1958) at the beginning of the XX century. considered human behavior as an adaptation of a living being to his environment. From the point of view of J. Watson, behavior is a system of reactions. After reading (in German and French translations) the works of V.M.Bekhterev and I.P. Pavlov, J. Watson finally established himself in the opinion that the conditioned reflex should become the main unit of behavior analysis and is the key to developing skills, building complex movements from simple , as well as to any forms of behavior, including those of an affective nature. He believed that there is not a single action that does not have a reason in the form of an external stimulus. The main formula of behaviorism is "S - R" (stimulus - response). The main research tasks of the behaviorists were as follows: identification and description of the types of reactions, the study of the processes of their formation, the study of the laws of combinations; as a more general and final task: according to the situation (stimulus), predict the behavior (reaction) of a person and, according to the nature of the reaction, determine the stimulus that caused it.

According to the theory of behaviorism, classical (according to I.P. Pavlov) and operant (fixed with the reinforcement of any action and subsequently reproduced with greater ease) conditioning are a universal learning mechanism, common to both animals and humans. At the same time, the learning process seems to be quite automatic, not requiring the manifestation of human activity. To "fix" a successful reaction in the nervous system, it is sufficient to use only reinforcement, regardless of the will and desires of the person himself. From this, the behaviorists concluded that with the help of stimuli and reinforcement one can literally "mold" any human behavior, manipulate it, that human behavior is rigidly "determined" and depends on external circumstances and past experience.

The "S - R" formula turned out to be rather limited. This theory ignores the existence of consciousness, i.e. the inner mental world of a person, which in itself is not true. The spread of behavioral views contributed to the study of mental phenomena from a natural-scientific standpoint.

Non-behaviorism ... Attempts to include the categories of motive and psychosocial attitude in the original behaviorist program led to a new direction - non-behaviorism.

One of the representatives of late behaviorism E. Tolman (1886 - 1959), an American psychologist, proposed to introduce a significant amendment into the "S - R" scheme, placing between S and R the so-called "intermediate variables" - V. As a result, the scheme takes the form "S - V - R ". By "intermediate variables" E. Tolman understood internal processes that mediate the action of a stimulus, such as: goals, intentions, images of situations.

E. Tolman in the 30s of the XX century. described behavior as a system connected with its environment by a network of cognitive relationships ("what leads to what"). The human body does not just collide with the environment, but, as it were, meets it with its own expectations, building hypotheses and showing ingenuity in search of the optimal way out of a problem situation.

K. Hull (1884 - 1953) proved that of all factors influencing human behavior, the decisive influence is exerted by the reduction (strengthening) of the need.

F. Skinner (1904 - 1990) believed that the personality of an individual consists of relatively complex, but nevertheless independently acquired reactions and is absolutely dependent on previous reinforcements. The concept of reinforcement plays a key role in Skinner's theory. Constitutional factors limit behavior. During life, a person's behavior can change under the influence of a changing environment: since the reinforcing features in the environment are different, then under their direct control, different behaviors are formed. Human behavior is controlled by aversive (unpleasant or painful) stimuli: punishment or negative reinforcement. A logical extension of the principle of reinforcement is that behavior that is reinforced in one situation is very likely to repeat itself when the body is confronted with other situations that resemble it. The tendency of reinforced behavior to extend to many of these positions is called generalization of stimulus... In adaptive behavior, a person has the ability to make differences in different situations environment - discernment of stimulus... Personal development occurs as a result of the interaction of generalizing and discriminating abilities, with the help of which a person regulates behavior so as to maximize positive reinforcement and minimize punishment. Skinner found that the process of forming behavior determines the development of oral speech, since language is the result of reinforcing certain actions. Skinner attributed life crises to environmental changes that put the individual in a situation where the set of behavioral responses turns out to be inadequate to receive reinforcement in a new situation. He developed the so-called operant learning, in which only the behavior or operations that the subject is performing at the moment are reinforced. A complex reaction is broken down into a series of simple, following one after another and sequentially reinforced operations, leading to a common goal. The programmed teaching method developed by F. Skinner made it possible to optimize the educational process, to develop corrective programs for unsuccessful or mentally retarded children.

Social behaviorism (social cognitive theory) . D. Mead (1863 - 1931), an American scientist, began to consider a person in the process of his interaction with people around him. He argued that personality is, as it were, a combination of various roles that it assumes. According to D. Mead's theory, called the theory of expectation, children play their roles depending on the expectations of the adult and past experience (observation of parents, acquaintances).

Of great importance in the development of social behaviorism (social-cognitive theory) are currently the works of A. Bandura (born in 1925) devoted to the correction of deviant behavior.

A. Bandura considers a person as possessing the abilities of thinking and self-regulation, which allows him to predict events and create means for exercising control over environment... A. Bandura understands the reasons for human functioning as a continuous interaction of behavior, cognitive sphere and environment. Many aspects of personality functioning involve the individual's interaction with others. Internal determinants of behavior, such as faith and expectation, and external determinants, such as reward and punishment, are part of a system of interacting influences that act not only on human behavior, but also on various parts of the system. Although human behavior is influenced by the environment, it is also partly a product of human activity, that is, a person can influence their own behavior.

Thanks to the person's ability to represent the actual outcome symbolically (through foresight), future consequences can be translated into momentary incentives that influence behavior in much the same way as potential consequences. Much in learning arises vicariously, that is, in the course of observing the behavior of others, individuals learn to imitate this behavior. The implementation of new reactions, observed some time ago, but never practiced, becomes possible due to the cognitive abilities of a person. These symbolic, cognitive skills allow the individual to transform what they have learned or combine what they have observed in a number of models into new patterns of behavior. Observing behavior that causes positive reward or prevents some aversive conditions can be a powerful stimulus for attention, persistence, and in the future (a similar situation) building the same behavior. Bandura, analyzing the role of reinforcement in learning through observation, showed its cognitive orientation. Reinforcement tells the person what consequences can be expected as a result of a right or wrong reaction.

From the point of view of socio-cognitive theory, many actions of a person are regulated by self-imposed reinforcement. Self-reinforcement occurs when a person sets a bar for achievement and rewards or punishes himself for reaching, exceeding, or failing.

A wide range of human behavior is regulated through self-esteem reactions, expressed in the form of self-satisfaction, pride in one's success, self-dissatisfaction, and self-criticism.

In recent years, A. Bandura introduced into his theoretical constructions the postulate of the cognitive mechanism of self-efficacy to explain personal functioning and change. The concept of self-efficacy refers to the ability of people to be aware of their ability to construct behavior appropriate to a specific task or situation. Bandura suggested that self-efficacy can be acquired in any of four ways (or any combination of them): ability to build behavior, indirect experience, verbal persuasion, and states of physical (emotional) arousal.

Cognitive theory ... J. Kelly (1905 - 1967) - one of the first personologists who emphasized cognitive (cognitive) processes as the main feature of human functioning. In accordance with his theoretical system, called the psychology of personal constructs, a person is essentially a scientist, a researcher who seeks to understand, interpret, foresee and control the world of his personal experiences in order to effectively interact with it. This view of a person is at the heart of modern cognitive orientation in personality psychology.

J. Kelly built his theory of personality on the basis of a holistic philosophical position - constructive alternativeism.

Constructive alternativeism proves that there is no such thing in the world about which “there can be no two opinions”; a person's awareness of reality is always a subject for interpretation; objective reality, of course, exists, but different people are aware of it in different ways; nothing is permanent or final; facts and events (like all human experience) exist only in the mind of a person, and there are various ways of interpreting them. The concept of constructive alternativeism assumes that human behavior is never fully defined, hence there is no true or valid way of interpreting a person. A person is always free to some extent in revising or replacing his interpretation of reality, but his thoughts and behavior are determined by previous events.

Kelly believed that people perceive their world using clear systems or models called constructs. Each person has a unique construct system that he uses to interpret life experiences and anticipate future events. Personality is equivalent to the personality constructs used by a person to predict the future. To understand another person, you need to know about the constructs that he uses, about the events included in these constructs, and how they relate to each other. Human behavior is determined by how he predicts the future with the help of a unique system of his personality constructs.

Kelly characterized the organization of constructs in terms of a hierarchical system in which some constructs are subordinate and some are subordinate in relation to other parts of the system; the organization of constructs is not rigidly fixed. People are similar to each other if the same events for them have approximately the same psychological meaning, and not because they have experienced identical events in life; if two people share views of the world, then, most likely, their behavior will be similar. Cultural differences are rooted in the difference in constructs that people use. To interact fruitfully with another, a person needs to interpret some part of the constructive system of the other. The similarity of the constructs determines the formation of friendship.

J. Kelly believed that his theory could be useful for understanding emotional states, mental health and mental disorders.

Gestalpsychology ( it . gestalt - form, structure ). Simultaneously with the emergence of behaviorism in the United States, another trend is developing in Germany - Gestaltism. A group of young researchers - M. Wertheimer (1880 - 1943), V. Koehler (1887 - 1967), K. Koffka (1886 - 1941), the successors of European functionalism - discovered integral structures in the human consciousness - gestalts (Gestalt), which cannot be decomposed into sensory primary elements, which have their own characteristics and laws. The leading mental process that determines the level of development of the human psyche, from the point of view of gestaltists, is perception. How a person perceives the world depends on his behavior and understanding of the situation. In the development of perception, a large role is played by the combination of a figure and a background against which a given object is demonstrated (the phenomenon of “figure and background” (E. Rubin) took the main place among the basic laws of gestalt). The basic properties of perception appear gradually, with the maturation of gestalts.

Process mental development is divided into two independent and parallel processes - maturation and learning. In the process of perception, first the “grasping” of the integral image of the object occurs, and then its differentiation. Learning leads to the formation of a new structure and, consequently, to a different perception and awareness of the situation. The moment phenomena enter a different situation, they acquire a new function. This awareness of new combinations and new functions of objects is the formation of a new gestalt, the awareness of which is the essence of thinking.

The process of "restructuring gestalt" occurs instantly - "insight" (eng. insight- discretion), i.e. insight is independent of the subject's past experience and is an explanation for adaptive behaviors. Insight meant for Gestaltists a transition to a new cognitive, figurative structure, according to which the nature of adaptive reactions changed. Gestaltism considered the only psychological facts directly experienced by the subject of the phenomena of consciousness, trying to correlate the "phenomenal world" with the real, physical, at the same time not depriving consciousness of its independent value. M. Wertheimer opposed the traditional practice of teaching in school, arguing that an early transition to logical thinking interferes with the development of creativity.

Psychoanalysis (Freudianism) ... The term "psychoanalysis" has three meanings: 1) theory of personality and psychopathology; 2) a method of therapy for personality disorders; 3) a method of studying unconscious thoughts and feelings of a person.

The psychoanalytic theory, authored by Z. Freud (1865 - 1939), assigns a leading role to a complex interaction between instincts, motives and drives that compete with each other for supremacy in the regulation of behavior. Personality, from the point of view of psychoanalysis, is a dynamic configuration of processes in endless conflict. Human behavior is deterministic.

Initially, describing the topographic model of personal organization, Z. Freud identified three levels in the mental life of a person: consciousness, preconscious and unconscious... Level consciousness consists of sensations and experiences that a person is aware of at the moment. Consciousness covers only a small percentage of all information received and stored in the brain. Region preconscious sometimes referred to as “available memory,” includes all experiences that are not currently conscious, but can easily return to consciousness, spontaneously or with minimal effort. Unconscious It is a repository of primitive instinctual urges plus emotions and memories that threaten consciousness so much that they have been pushed into the unconscious. According to Freud, such unconscious material largely determines the day-to-day functioning of a person.

In the early 20s of the XX century. Freud revised his conceptual model of mental life and introduced three components into the structure of personality: id, ego and superego ( concepts accepted in English translations, equivalents of original terms of Freud - "it", "I", "super-I").

"It" (lat. Id - it) - these are extremely primitive, instinctive and innate aspects of personality. "It" is associated with bodily processes, the so-called "true psychic reality" by Freud, reflecting the inner world of subjective experiences, not knowing about objective reality. Being the oldest initial structure of the psyche, "it" expresses the primary principle of all human life - the immediate release of psychic energy produced by biologically conditioned impulses (especially sexual and aggressive). If the impulses are restrained and do not find discharge, then tension is created in personal functioning. Immediate voltage discharge is called pleasure principle... Freud described two mechanisms by which "it" relieves the personality of tension: reflex actions and primary processes.

"I" (lat. ego- "I") is a component of the mental apparatus responsible for making decisions. The “I” seeks to express and satisfy the desires of “it” in accordance with the restrictions imposed by the outside world. "I" must constantly differentiate between events in the psychic plane and real events in the external world. The "I" obeys the principle of reality, the purpose of which is to preserve the integrity of the organism by postponing the satisfaction of instincts until the moment when it is possible to achieve discharge in a suitable way and (or) appropriate conditions in the external environment. The reality principle introduces a measure of rationality into human behavior.

"Super-self" (lat. super- "in excess of", ego- "I") - the last component of the developing personality, representing an internalized version of social norms and standards of behavior. Freud divided the "super-self" into two subsystems: conscience and ego ideal. Conscience includes the ability to critical self-esteem, the presence of moral inhibitions and the emergence of feelings of guilt. Ego ideal- this is the rewarding aspect of the super-ego. "Super-I" directs a person to absolute perfection in thoughts, words and deeds, inhibiting any socially condemned impulses from the "it".

Psychoanalytic theory is based on the concept that humans are complex energy systems. Human behavior is activated by a single energy in accordance with the law of conservation of energy. The source of psychic energy is the neurophysiological state of arousal. Each person has a certain amount of energy that feeds mental activity. The goal of any form of human behavior is to reduce the stress caused by the accumulation of this energy, which is unpleasant for him.

According to Freud's theory, the motivation of human behavior is entirely based on the energy of excitement produced by bodily needs, mental images of which, expressed in the form of desires, are called instincts... Instincts are the ultimate cause of all activity. Freud recognized the existence of two main groups of instincts: life instincts(under the general name Eros) and of death(called Thanatos). Freud considered the sexual instincts to be the most essential for the development of personality. The energy of sexual instincts is called libido(lat. - to want, desire), or libido energy - a term used in the meaning of the energy of vital instincts in general. Death instincts obey the principle entropy(any energy system strives to maintain dynamic equilibrium). Freud believed that all living organisms have a tendency to return to the indeterminate state from which they emerged. "The goal of life is death." Death instincts underlie all manifestations of cruelty, aggression, suicide and murder.

The psychoanalytic theory of development is based on the fact that, firstly, the experiences of early childhood play a critical role in the formation of an adult personality, and secondly, a person is born with a certain amount of libido energy, which passes through several psychosexual stages in its development (oral, anal, phallic, genital), rooted in the instinctive processes of the body. An important concept is the concept of regression - a return to an earlier stage of psychosexual development and the manifestation of appropriate behavior.

Anxiety is a consequence of inadequate discharge of libido energy. Anxiety is a function of the "I", and its purpose is to respond in threatening situations in an adaptive way. Anxiety helps the person to avoid consciously identifying unacceptable instinctual impulses and to encourage the gratification of these impulses in the right ways at the right time. Regulatory mechanisms aimed at eliminating or minimizing negative, traumatic experiences caused by anxiety, Freud called protective mechanisms or psychological protection of the individual. Freud defined the defense mechanisms of the "I" as a conscious strategy used by the individual to protect himself from the open expression of "it" and counter pressure from the "super-I".

All defense mechanisms have two general characteristics: 1) they act on an unconscious level, being a means of self-deception; 2) distort, deny or falsify the perception of reality.

Some of the basic defensive strategies of the individual are:

Crowding out - the process of removing from awareness thoughts and feelings that cause suffering; “Motivated forgetting”: the person is not aware of anxiety-provoking conflicts, does not remember traumatic past events. The constant striving of the repressed material for open expression can receive short-term satisfaction in dreams, jokes, slips, etc. Repression plays a role in all forms of neurotic behavior, in psychosomatic diseases.

Projection- the process by which a person attributes his own unacceptable thoughts, feelings and behavior to other people. Projection allows you to blame someone or something for your shortcomings or failures. Projection also explains social prejudice and the scapegoat phenomenon.

Substitution- a process in which the manifestation of an instinctive impulse is redirected from a more threatening object or person to a less threatening one.

Rationalization- a way of defending the "I" by resorting to false argumentation, thanks to which irrational behavior is presented in such a way that it looks quite reasonable and justified in the eyes of others.

Regression- a process characterized by a return to childhood patterns of behavior.

Reactive education- a protective mechanism, manifested in the expression of opposite motives in the behavior and thoughts of a person.

Sublimation- a defense mechanism that enables a person, in order to adapt, to change their impulses in such a way that they can be expressed through socially acceptable thoughts or actions. Sublimation is seen as the only healthy, constructive strategy for curbing unwanted impulses, as it allows the self to change the purpose and / or object of impulses without inhibiting their manifestation. Freud argued that the sublimation of sexual instincts was the main impetus for great achievements in science and culture.

Neo-freudianism ... Two of the most prominent theorists who parted ways with Freud and chose the path of creating their own original theoretical systems are A. Adler and C.G. Jung.

1. A. Adler's individual theory of personality. A. Adler (1870 - 1937) gave his theory the name "individual psychology" (from Latin individuum - indivisible). Adler proceeded from the fact that no manifestation of vital activity can be viewed in isolation, but only in relation to the personality as a whole. Only in the direction of personally significant goals can an individual be perceived as a single and self-consistent whole. Adler argued that, striving for perfection, a person is able to plan his actions and determine his own destiny. He believed that a person's behavior always depends on his opinion about himself and about the environment into which he must fit, i.e. behavior clearly reflects the individual's subjective perception of reality. Adler believed that the feeling of inferiority is the source of all human aspirations for self-development, growth and competence. The pursuit of excellence is an innate fundamental law of human life. Excellence as a goal can take both a negative (destructive) and a positive (constructive) direction. The striving for superiority is manifested both at the level of the individual and at the level of society. Lifestyle is a complex of behavioral activity aimed at overcoming inferiority. All human behavior takes place in a social context; every person has a natural sense of community or social interest (German. gemeinschafttsgefuhl- "social feeling", "sense of solidarity"), which is innate and makes you abandon selfish goals for the sake of the goals of society. From Adler's point of view, a person's life is valuable only to the extent that he contributes to the increase in the value of the lives of other people. The severity of social interest is a criterion for assessing the mental health of an individual. Based on the important role of the social context in the development of personality, Adler drew attention to the order of birth as the main determinant of attitudes accompanying the style of life. Adler believed that personality is more influenced by subjective expectations of what might happen than past experience.

2. CG Jung's analytical theory of personality. CG Jung (1875 - 1961), a Swiss psychologist, devoted himself to the study of dynamic unconscious drives in human experience. According to K. Jung's analytical theory of personality, personality is motivated by intrapsychic forces and images, the origin of which goes deep into the history of evolution. A person (like humanity in general) has a desire for creative self-expression and physical perfection. Jung argued that the soul (a term similar to personality) is made up of three separate but interacting structures: ego, personal unconscious and collective unconscious. Ego is the center of the sphere of consciousness, the basis of self-awareness. Personal unconscious- this is a repository of material suppressed, displaced from consciousness, as well as accumulations of interconnected thoughts and feelings, called complexes. The material of the personal unconscious is unique and, as a rule, available for awareness. Collective unconscious, according to K. Jung, consists of powerful primary mental images common to all human beings and resulting from the emotional past of mankind, the so-called archetypes(Greek. arche- start and typos - image). Archetypes- innate ideas or memories that predispose people to perceive, experience and respond to events in a certain way. The number of archetypes is unlimited, the most significant are a person(lat. - mask), shadow(socially unacceptable sexual and aggressive impulses), anima(the inner image of a woman in a man), animus(the inner image of a man in a woman), self(the core of the personality around which all other elements are organized and united). According to Jung, the ultimate goal in life is the acquisition and development of the self (or the full realization of the “I”), that is, the formation of a single, unique and integral individual. The development of each person in this direction is unique, it continues throughout life and includes a process called individuation. Individuation is a dynamic and evolving process of integrating many opposing intrapersonal forces and tendencies. Jung called the result of the realization of individuation self-realization. Self-realization is available only to capable and highly educated people who have sufficient leisure for this.

The most famous contribution of K. Jung to psychology are considered the two life attitudes (ego orientations) described by him: extraversion and introversion, as well as psychological functions: rational - thinking and feeling; irrational - sensation and intuition, of which only one personal orientation and one pair of functions are realized by a person. Two ego orientations and four psychological functions interact to form eight different personality types.

Jung was one of the first to recognize the contribution of religious, spiritual and even mystical experience to personality development. This is his special role as a predecessor of the humanistic direction in psychology.

Humanistic psychology ... The term humanistic psychology was coined by a group of personologists who came together in the early 1960s to create a viable theoretical alternative to two of the most important intellectual movements in psychology, behaviorism and psychoanalysis. A. Maslow (1908 - 1970), American psychologist, was recognized as an outstanding representative of the humanistic theory of personality. Humanistic psychology is rooted in existential (lat. existentia- existence) philosophy developed by European thinkers and writers: S. Kierkegaard, K. Jaspers, M. Heidegger, J. - P. Sartre. Many outstanding psychologists also influenced the development of a humanistic approach to personality, such as E. Fromm, G. Allport, K. Rogers, W. Frankl, R. May, L. Binswanger.

The existentialist view of a person originates from a concrete and specific awareness of the uniqueness of a person's being, existing at a particular moment in time and space. From the point of view of existentialists, each person realizes that he is responsible for his own destiny, and therefore experiences pain, despair, loneliness and anxiety. As a free being, man is responsible for the realization of as many possibilities as possible. The concept of a person's becoming involves his search for a genuine and full meaning of life. The only "reality" known to anyone is subjective or personal reality, but not objective. Existentialists emphasize the importance of subjective experience as a fundamental phenomenon in the study and understanding of humanity.

According to A. Maslow's point of view, each person should be studied as a single, unique, organized whole. Maslow argued that by nature, every person has potential creative opportunities for positive growth and improvement; that human nature is inherently good and the destructive forces in him are the result of frustration or unmet basic needs. Maslow believed that people are motivated to find personal goals and this makes their life meaningful and meaningful. Maslow suggested that all human needs are innate, or instinctual, and that they are organized in a hierarchical system - priority, or domination. However, he admitted that there may be exceptions to this hierarchical arrangement of motives, for example, a creative person can develop and express his talent, despite social difficulties and social problems. Maslow described man as a "willing being" who rarely achieves complete, complete satisfaction of needs. Maslow characterized self-actualization(the highest need) as the desire of a person to become what he can become, i.e. develop your own innate potential. Self-actualization does not have to take the form of creative endeavors through the creation of works of art; specific forms of self-actualization are very diverse. Many people do not see their potential, do not know about its existence and do not understand the benefits of self-improvement, they tend to doubt and even fear their abilities, thereby reducing the chances for self-actualization. Maslow called this phenomenon complex of Iona, which is characterized by a fear of success that prevents a person from striving for self-improvement. Maslow made the assumption that the social and cultural environment often suppresses the tendency to actualize certain norms in relation to some part of the population. An obstacle to self-actualization, according to Maslow, can be severely negatively influenced by security needs. The realization of the need for self-actualization requires openness to new ideas and experience, a person's independent, independent opinion on basic life issues.

In terms of its positions, especially in terms of understanding the meaning of life, humanistic psychology of all foreign concepts is the closest to the views of Russian psychologists.

S. L. Rubinstein's theory of activity ... The direction of research on the structure of personality in Russian psychology was largely determined by the provisions of S.L. Rubinstein (1889 - 1960), which received the name of the subject-activity theory.

S. L. Rubinstein suggested that the human psyche is active and exists as mental activity... A person's reflection of the external world is interpreted as the activity of the subject, i.e. as the highest level of activity (initially practical). One of the main target functions of mental activity is the management of behavior and emotional state. Activity - in the unity of its components - means the inseparable connection of a person with the outside world. The content of the external world - to the extent of a person's activity - gradually and more and more becomes the content of thoughts, feelings, cognition, science, etc. A person and his psyche are formed and manifested in the course of initially practical, and then theoretical, but in principle a single activity. The subject in the acts of his creative initiative is not only revealed and manifested; it is created and defined in them. Therefore, by what he does, it is possible to define and shape him.

The essence of the human person finds its final expression in the fact that it not only develops like any organism, but also has its own history. What applies to humanity as a whole cannot but apply to each person. Personal development is mediated by the results of his activities. The mental abilities of a person are not only a prerequisite, but also the result of her actions and deeds, in which she is not only revealed, but also formed. A person who has done something significant becomes a different person. The history of human life should be reduced to a number of external affairs.

Rubinstein's activities are characterized by the following features:

1) it is always the activity of the subject, more precisely, subjects carrying out joint activities (there can be no subject-free activity);

2) it is the interaction of the subject with the object, i.e. is necessarily substantive and meaningful;

3) she is - at least to a minimal extent - always creative;

4) independent (which does not contradict compatibility).

Module 3. Social psychology

Depth psychology - (Depth psychology; Tiefenpsychologie) - the general name of psychological movements that put forward the idea of ​​the independence of the psyche from consciousness and strive to substantiate and investigate this independent mental as such, in its dynamic status.

Distinguish between classic depth psychology and modern. Classical depth psychology includes the psychological concepts of Freud, Adler and Jung - psychoanalysis, individual psychology, and analytical psychology.

Psychoanalysis.

Psychoanalysis is a psychotherapeutic method developed by Freud (Freud S.). The fundamental concept that unites the teachings of Freud with the views of Adler (A.) and Jung (Jung C. G.), as well as neopsychoanalysts, is the idea of ​​unconscious mental processes and psychotherapeutic methods used to analyze them.

Psychoanalysis includes theories of general mental development, the psychological origin of neuroses and psychoanalytic therapy, thus being a complete and holistic system.

In accordance with psychoanalytic theory, mental activity is of two types: conscious and unconscious. The first kind of activity is "directly given", which "cannot be more fully explained by any description." Preconscious means thoughts that are unconscious at a certain point in time, but are not suppressed and therefore capable of becoming conscious. The unconscious is a part of the soul in which mental processes are unconscious in functioning, that is, memories, fantasies, desires, etc., the existence of which can only be implied or which become conscious only after overcoming resistance. In the 1920s. Freud renamed the unconscious id, the conscious ego. The unconscious is a structure with specific properties: "Liberation from mutual contradiction, the primary process, timelessness and the replacement of external reality by the psychic - all this specific traits, which we hope to find in the processes belonging to the System of the Unconscious ".

Historically concept Id arises from the concept of the unconscious. In the course of development, the Id precedes the Ego, that is, the psychic apparatus begins its existence as an undifferentiated Id, a part of which then develops into a structured Ego. The id contains everything that is available from birth, mainly what is in the constitution, therefore, the instincts that are generated by the somatic organization and which find their first psychic expression here, in the id. According to Freud, "Id is a dark, inaccessible part of our personality. We approach the understanding of the Id by means of comparison, calling it chaos, a cauldron full of seething impulses. We imagine that at our limit the Id is open to the somatic, absorbing needs, which find their psychic expression in him. Thanks to drives, the id is filled with energy, but has no organization ... "

Ego is a structural and topographic concept that refers to the organized parts of the mental apparatus, as opposed to the unorganized id. "The ego is a part of the id, which has been modified under the direct influence of the external world ... The ego represents what can be called reason or common sense, as opposed to id, which contains passions. In its relation to the id, the ego is like a rider who must to restrain the superior strength of the horse, with the difference that the rider tries to do it with his own strength, while the Ego uses borrowed strength for this. " The development of the ego implies the growth and acquisition of functions that enable the individual to increasingly dominate his impulses, to act independently of parental figures and to control the environment.

Super Ego- this is the part of the Ego in which self-observation, self-criticism and other reflexive activities develop, where parental introjects are localized. The superego includes unconscious elements, and the prescriptions and inhibitions emanating from it originate in the subject's past and may be in conflict with his real values. "The child's super-ego is built, in fact, not according to the parents' example, but according to the parent's super-ego; it is filled with the same content, becomes the bearer of tradition, all those values ​​preserved in time that continue to exist on this path through generations."

Freud concludes that "significant parts of the ego and superego can remain unconscious, usually unconscious. This means that the person knows nothing about their content and needs an effort to make them conscious for himself."

In his work "Ego and Id" Freud (Freud S.) wrote: "Psychoanalysis is a tool that enables the Ego to achieve victory over the Id." He believed that in psychoanalysis the main efforts were directed towards "strengthening the ego, making it more independent of the superego, expanding the scope of perception and strengthening its organization ... Where there was id, there will be ego." Freud saw the goal of psychoanalysis in making the unconscious conscious; he argued that "it is the business of analysis to ensure, as far as possible, good conditions for the functioning of the ego. "

The key, defining concepts of psychoanalysis are: free association, transference and interpretation.

Free associations.

When used as a special term, "Free associations" means the patient's way of thinking, encouraged by the analyst's prescription to obey the "basic rule," that is, to express his thoughts freely, without concealment, without trying to concentrate; starting either from some word, number, image of a dream, representation, or spontaneously (Rycroft Ch., Laplanche J., Pontalis JB, 1996).

The Rule of Free Association is the mainstay of all psychoanalytic technique and is often defined in the literature as the "basic, fundamental" rule.

Transfer.

Transfer (transfer, transfer). The transfer by the patient to the psychoanalyst of the feelings experienced by him for other people in early childhood, that is, the projection of early childhood relationships and desires onto another person. The initial sources of Transference reactions are significant people in the early years of the child's life. These are usually parents, caregivers with whom love, comfort, and punishment are associated, as well as brothers, sisters, and rivals. Transference reactions may be conditioned by later relationships with people, and even contemporaries, but then the analysis will reveal that these later sources are secondary and themselves descended from significant persons of early childhood.

Interpretation.

Interpretation (Latin interpretatio). In a broad sense, Interpretation means an explanation of the unclear or hidden for the patient the meaning of some aspects of his experiences and behavior, and in psychodynamic psychotherapy it is a certain technique for interpreting the meaning of a symptom, an associative chain of ideas, dreams, fantasy, resistance, transference, etc. In this case, the psychotherapist makes unconscious lucid phenomena, using their own unconscious, empathy and intuition, as well as experience and theoretical knowledge. Interpretation is an essential psychoanalytic procedure. If free associations are the main method of obtaining the most important material from the patient, then I. is the main tool for analyzing this material and translating the unconscious into the conscious.

Individual psychology.

Created by Alfred Adler (A. Adler), I. p. Was a major step forward in understanding a person, the uniqueness of his unique life path... It was Individual psychology that anticipated many of the principles of humanistic psychology, existentialism, gestalt therapy, etc.

Individual psychology includes such concepts as: life goals, lifestyle, scheme of apperception, sense of social (Gemeinschaftsgefuhl) and the associated need for social cooperation, self. Adler believed that life goals that motivate a person's behavior in the present, orient him towards the development and achievement of the fulfillment of desires in the future, are rooted in his past experience, and in the present they are supported by the actualization of a sense of danger and insecurity. The life goal of each individual is made up of his personal experience, values, relationships, characteristics of the personality itself. Many life goals were formed in early childhood and remain unconscious for the time being. Adler himself believed that his choice of the profession of a doctor was influenced by frequent illnesses in childhood and the associated fear of death.

Life goals serve the individual as a defense against feelings of helplessness, a means of connecting a perfect and powerful future with an anxious and uncertain present. With the severity of the feeling of inferiority, which is so characteristic of patients with neuroses in the understanding of Adler, life goals can acquire an exaggerated, unrealistic character (the author has discovered the mechanisms of compensation and hypercompensation). A neurotic patient often has a very significant discrepancy between conscious and unconscious goals, as a result of which he ignores the possibility of real achievements and prefers fantasies about personal superiority.

Lifestyle is that unique way that a person chooses to realize his life goals. It is an integrated style of adapting to and interacting with life. A symptom of a disease or a personality trait can only be understood in the context of a lifestyle, as a kind of expression of it. That is why Adler's words are so relevant now: “The individual as an integral being cannot be withdrawn from his connections with life ... For this reason, experimental tests that deal at best with private aspects of an individual’s life can tell us little about his character ... "

Within the framework of his lifestyle, each person creates a subjective idea of ​​himself and the world, which Adler called the scheme of apperception and which determines his behavior. Apperception circuitry is usually self-reinforcing, or self-reinforcing. For example, a person's initial experience of fear will lead him to the fact that the surrounding situation with which he comes into contact will be perceived by him as even more threatening.

By the sense of the public, Adler understood "a sense of human solidarity, the connection between man and man ... an expansion of the sense of camaraderie in human society." In a sense, everything human behavior socially, because, he said, we develop in a social environment and our personalities are formed socially. The sense of the community includes a sense of kinship with all of humanity and a connection with the whole of life.

Based on Darwin's theory of evolution, Adler believed that the ability and need to cooperate is one of the most important forms of human adaptation to the environment. Only the cooperation of people, the consistency of their behavior provide them with a chance to overcome real inferiority or the feeling of it. The blocked need for social cooperation and the accompanying feeling of inadequacy underlie the unsuitability for life and neurotic behavior.

The concept of self, like many categories of psychoanalysis, is not considered by the author to be operational. The self in his understanding is identical to the creative force with the help of which a person directs his needs, gives them form and meaningful purpose.

Analytical psychology.

The basic concepts and methods of Analytical Psychology were formulated by the author in the Tavistock lectures (London, 1935). The structure of human mental existence, according to Jung, includes two fundamental spheres - consciousness and mental unconsciousness. Psychology is, first and foremost, the science of consciousness. It is also the science of the content and mechanisms of the unconscious. Since it is not yet possible to directly study the unconscious, since its nature is unknown, it is expressed by consciousness and in terms of consciousness. Consciousness is largely a product of perception and orientation in the external world, however, according to Jung, it does not consist entirely of sensory data, as psychologists of past centuries have argued. The author also contested the position of Freud, removing the unconscious from consciousness. He put the question in the opposite way: everything that arises in consciousness is initially not clearly recognized, and awareness follows from an unconscious state. In consciousness, Jung distinguished between ectopsychic and endopsychic functions of orientation. The author attributed the system of orientation to ectopsychic functions, which deals with external factors received through the senses; to endopsychic - a system of connections between the content of consciousness and processes in the unconscious. Ectopsychic functions include:

1. Feel
2. thinking,
3. the senses,
4. intuition.

If sensation says that something is, then thinking determines what this thing is, that is, it introduces a concept; feeling informs about the value of this thing. However, this knowledge is not limited to information about a thing, since it does not take into account the category of time. A thing has its past and future. Orientation in relation to this category is carried out by intuition, foreboding. Where concepts and evaluations are powerless, we are entirely dependent on the gift of intuition. The listed functions are presented in each individual with varying degrees of severity. The dominant function determines the psychological type. Jung deduced the regularity of the subordination of ectopsychic functions: with the dominance of the mental function, the function of feeling is subordinate, with the dominance of sensation, the submission is intuition, and vice versa. Dominant functions are always differentiated, we are "civilized" in them and presumably have freedom of choice. Subordinate functions, on the contrary, are associated with archaism in the personality, lack of control. Ectopsychic functions do not exhaust the conscious sphere of the psychic; its endopsychic side includes:

1. memory,
2. subjective components of conscious functions,
3. affects,
4. invasion, or invasion.

Memory allows you to reproduce the unconscious, to make connections with what has become subconscious - suppressed or discarded. Subjective components, affects, intrusions play the role assigned to endopsychic functions to an even greater extent - they are the very means by which the unconscious content reaches the surface of consciousness. The center of consciousness, according to Jung, is the Ego-complex of mental factors, constructed from information about one's own body, existence and from certain sets (series) of memory. The ego has a tremendous energy of attraction - it attracts both the content of the unconscious and impressions from the outside. Only that which enters into connection with the Ego is realized. The ego complex manifests itself in volitional effort. If the ectopsychic functions of consciousness are controlled by the Ego-complex, then in the endopsychic system only memory, and then to a certain extent, is under the control of the will. The subjective components of conscious functions are even less controlled. Affects and intrusions are completely controlled by "force alone." The closer to the unconscious, the less the Ego-complex exercises control over the mental function, in other words, we can approach the unconscious only due to the property of endopsychic functions not being controlled by the will. What has reached the endopsychic sphere becomes conscious, determines our concept of ourselves. But man is not a static structure, he is constantly changing. The part of our personality that is in the shadows, while unconscious, is in the process of formation. Thus, the potentials inherent in the personality are contained in the shadow, unconscious side. The unconscious mental sphere, which is not amenable to direct observation, manifests itself in its products that cross the threshold of consciousness, which Jung divides into 2 classes. The first contains knowable material of purely personal origin. Jung called this class of content the subconscious mind, or the personal unconscious, consisting of the elements that organize the human personality as a whole. Another class of content that does not have an individual origin, the author defined as the collective unconscious. These contents belong to a type that embodies the properties not of a separate mental being, but of all mankind as a kind of common whole, and thus are collective in nature. These collective patterns, or types, or patterns, Jung called archetypes. An archetype is a definite formation of an archaic nature, including mythological motives both in form and in content. Mythological motives express psychological mechanism introversion of the conscious mind into deep layers unconscious psyche... The realm of the archetypal mind is the core of the unconscious. The contents of the collective unconscious are not controlled by the will; they are not only universal but also autonomous. Jung offers 3 methods for reaching the realm of the unconscious: the method of verbal association, the analysis of dreams, and the method of active imagination. The word association test, which made Jung widely known, is that the subject responds as quickly as possible to a stimulus word with the first answer word that comes to his mind.

quick reference

In the book: Ermine P., Titarenko T. (ed.)
Psychology of personality: a dictionary-reference. К .: "Ruta", 2001

• ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY (C.G. Jung)
• ANTIPSYCHIATRY (R.D. Laing)
• ANTHROPOLOGICAL THEORY (C. Lombroso)
• BIHEVIORAL THEORIES OF PERSONALITY
• GESTALT THERAPY (F.S. Pearls)
• HUMANIST PSYCHOLOGY (K.R. Rogers)
• HUMANIST PSYCHOANALYSIS (E. Fromm)
• DISPOSITIONAL THEORY OF PERSONALITY (G. W. Allport)
• INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY (A. Adler)
• CATHOLIC EXISTENTIALISM (H.O. Marseille)
• CONSTITUTIONAL THEORY OF PERSONALITY
• THE CONCEPT OF "HUMAN KNOWLEDGE" (B.G. Ananyev)
• CULTURAL AND HISTORICAL THEORY (L. S. Vygotsky)
• LOGOTHERAPY (V.E. Frankl)
• Marxist theories of personality
• INTERPERSONAL THEORY OF PSYCHIATRY (G.S. Sullivan)
• Neo-Freudianism (K. Horney)
• ONTOPSYCHOLOGY (A. Meneghetti)
• ORGON PSYCHOTHERAPY (W. Reich)
• PERSONALIST PSYCHOLOGY (V. Stern)
• PERSONOLOGY (G. Murray)
• UNDERSTANDING PSYCHOLOGY (E. Spranger)
• PSYCHOANALYSIS (S. Freud)
• PSYCHODRAMA (J.L. Moreno)
• RELATIONSHIP PSYCHOLOGY (V.N. Myasishchev)
• BEHAVIORAL PSYCHOLOGY (P. Janet)
• PSYCHOLOGY OF CONSCIOUSNESS (W. James)
• FIVE-FACTOR PERSONALITY MODEL
• REFLEXOLOGICAL THEORY (V.M. Bekhterev)
• THE ZEN-BUDDHISM SYSTEM
• SOCIO-COGNITIVE THEORY (A. Bandura)
• STRUCTURAL PSYCHOANALYSIS (J. Lacan)
• THEORY OF ACTIVITY (A.N. Leontiev)
• THEORY OF INTEGRAL INDIVIDUALITY (B.C. Merlin)
• THEORY OF PERSONAL CONSTRUCTIONS (J.A. Kelly)
• PRIMARY INJURY THEORY (O. Rank)
• FIELD THEORY (K. Levin)
• ROLE THEORY
• THEORY OF SELF-ACTUALIZATION (A.G. Maslow)
• THEORY OF SOCIAL SCIENCE (J. Rotter)
• INSTALLATION THEORY (D. N. Uznadze)
• TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS (E. Bern)
• TRANSPERSONAL PSYCHOLOGY (S. Grof)
• FACTOR THEORY OF PERSONALITY
• PHILOSOPHICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL CONCEPT (S.L. Rubinstein)
• CHRISTIAN PERSONALISM (E. Mounier)
• EXISTENTIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF THE PERSONALITY
• EPIGENETIC THEORY (E.G. Erickson)
• AESTHETIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL CONCEPT OF PERSONALITY (M.M. Bakhtin)
• OTHER THEORIES AND CONCEPTS OF PERSONALITY
  The concept of life creation (L.V. Sokhan)
  "Activation" concept (D.W. Fiske and S.R.Muddy)
  "Biosphere" concept (A. Angyal)
  The concept of "spiritual man" (J. Newten)
  "Motivational" concept (D.C. McClelland)
  Organismic concept (K. Goldstein)
  Psychosynthesis (R. Assagioli)

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ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY
(C.G. Jung)

A. p. Created by a Swiss psychiatrist and psychologist Jung and is being developed by his numerous followers. As in other theories of depth psychology (see also Psychoanalysis, Individual Psychology ), ch. attention is paid to unconscious mental processes. In psychoanalysis and A. n. There are general categories and explanatory principles. Dynamic the aspect of the functioning of the psyche in both directions is represented by the concept libido... However, Jung understands libido not as sexual energy, but as hypothetical. category describing decomp. types of mental activity... Libido exists in potential (desire) and active forms. action.

If 3. Freud spoke about the decisive influence on the personality of infantile experiences then Jung turned to human childhood. kind. Based on the analysis of extensive clinical material. and experiment. research, ancient myths, fairy tales, customs, rituals of primitive peoples, religions. teachings, ancient sciences such as alchemy, astrology. Jung proved to exist collective unconscious, which arose as a result of the evolution of biol. species "man" and representing the accumulating experience of mankind in the form archetypes... Yavl archetypes forms of perception and understanding of reality. They repeat, develop similar experiences in different generations. A person who does not implement archetypes, does not give them a way out through consciousness, creates tension that can destroy the ego.

To explain the movement of energy, Jung introduced the principle of polarity: each desire, property has its opposite. If people. deliberately seeks to define. goals, then in unconscious the opposite intention is present, which explains the unconscious breakdown of conscious intentions. This principle also applies to relationships. archetypal figures(e.g. Shadow- the opposite of the Ego and Persons), and mental functions (see. Personality typology), and on properties (if a man deliberately cultivates masculinity, then emotionality, impulsiveness is displaced by him into the unconscious). Neurotic. development is seen as one-sidedness, when one tendency dominates.

The energy accumulated in the individual and the collective unconscious can move into consciousness and destroy the rational process, because its action is primitive. For example, a person strives to be compliant, gentle. Then activity, firmness can manifest itself in inappropriate situations aggressive reaction. At the same time, opposites, offsetting each other, create tension that promotes growth. If a person consciously ignores any sphere, for example, sexuality, then the unconscious through dreaming reminds of her.

Unity is personal. provided by the transcendental function. She overcomes ambivalent tendencies internal conflict, connecting the polarity of the psyche through the symbolic. expression of mental content. Jung emphasized her natures. character not based on conscious intent. Manifesting to overcome one-sidedness in development, the transcendental function gives a new perspective, which was not intended, was not the goal of the person. and cannot be fully understood with the help of consciousness. Its effect is most realistically found in the description of the experience of enlightenment in oriental texts or, for example, in the novels of G. Hesse.

Personal development, manifested in the convergence of consciousness and the unconscious, Jung called individuation... Individuation proceeds as awareness of previously unconscious needs, aspirations, feelings, their further splitting into conscious. and unconscious. parts. This differentiation of parts of the psyche allows a person to overcome polarities, perceive the world more subtly and express himself. Individuation is based on the assimilation of the individual, and collective experience, as a result of which the balance and integrity of the individual is formed.

On the path of individuation, personal. is experiencing a collision with archetypal figures. They concentrate the most important motives, collision is human. life: attitude to others, their influence on people. (Person), choice, decision-making (This), attitude towards oneself, rejection or acceptance of oneself (Shadow), gender identity as a division into masculine and feminine principles ( Anima / Aiimus), attitude to the supernatural, which is beyond the understanding of people. ( Self). Individuation is seen as a manifestation of the unique potential inherent in the center of the personality. - Self.

Personal dynamics can happen in the opposite way. When the Ego is identified with the Self, regression to the collective unconscious. Jung defined this way of development as inflation. Captured by archetypes people. can experience the power of something powerful and transpersonal over himself, the loss of himself or herself. transpersonal power. With inflation, the Ego can identify with the Self and the person. feels omnipotent, chosen, endowed with special abilities and power. The ideas and images of the collective psyche seem to be the product of one's own. consciousness, indisputable truths. The versatility of these ideas makes it possible mana personalities influence other people.

In A. p. It is assumed that the development of personal. has a definition. direction based on the action of the transcendental function. In this sense, teleological is characteristic of the A. p. approach (i.e. determination of the present by the future), also presented in theory Adler... 3. Freud carried out a causal approach, looking for the basis of the personal. in the past. Jung's theory unites these so-called, realized in the concept of a transcendental function. In the same time

Jung does not deny a causal explanation of the phenomena of the present by the past history of people.

In later writings, Jung also introduced the principle of synchronicity (or synchronicity), applied to events that have a similar meaning, occur simultaneously, but are not causally related. These include phenomena described as telepathy, clairvoyance. The principle of synchronicity can be applied to the description of premonitions, the coincidence of some events and thoughts, expectations. In phenomena of this kind, the physical is associated. and psychol. reality. The action of this principle explains the activation of the archetype, when similar dreams, fantasies, ideas, mental states manifest in different people... Thus, the principle of synchrony describes phenomena that do not obey the laws of space, time, and causality.

On the basis of Jung's ideas, the school of psychology emerged. thoughts. She also influenced the formation of humanistic, transpersonal, existential and other areas of science and practice, l-ru and art.

I. A. Grabskaya

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ANTIPSYCHIATRY
(R.D. Laing)

A. - one of the directions of existential psychoanalysis , the founder of which is. Laing... Laing's concept is based on the concept of an "ontologically protected person" with the ability to be autonomous individuality, that is, feeling unshakable confidence in their own. reality and identity as well as in the reality and identity of other people.

With a partial or complete absence of such confidence, the state of the primary (or basic, basic) ontological. security is violated, and in people. anxiety or anxiety arises, which is experienced as a threat of self. existence as a personal. Laing describes three mains. forms of such anxiety that require therapy.

1. Absorption, that is, the fear of any reference to someone or something, even to oneself. Uncertainty about the stability of their autonomy makes people. to be afraid of losing their autonomous identity when dealing with other people. At the same time, a stranger love tend to fear more than stranger hate... Main a maneuver used to preserve one's identity, yavl. insulation.

2. Explosion, ie. experience the world as ready at any moment to collapse and destroy identity, the perception of any contact with reality as a terrible threat, since reality is explosive. Reality threatening absorption or explosion, yavl. pursuer.

3. Numbness and depersonalization... Numbness is a special form of fear, as a result of which people. numb, that is, turns to stone, as well as the "magical action" with which someone is trying to convert a person. into a stone, an action aimed at denying personality. autonomy of people, reification, depersonalization of his personal. People considered in this aspect tend to feel more or less depersonalized and at the same time predisposed to depersonalize others.

Ontologically unprotected person does not have a sense of integrity and feels initially split into spirit and body, identifying himself most often with "spirit". Such personal. feel non-incarnate and experience their "I" more or less separated from the body, which is felt more as one of the objects in the world than the center of their own. being... The non-embodied "I" becomes hyperconsciousness and tries to assert its own. images, their own separate int. peace. Such sensations are characteristic of schizoid individuals. and schizophrenics, while a system of embodied "false I" is created, which replaces intrinsic values ​​when interacting with other people. and non-embodied "I" people. Laing paid much attention to the study of schizophrenia and generalized the results of these observations in his concept of the personality. In his latest works, he generally rejects the border between norm and pathology, believing that it is not the individual who is really sick, but the society that transforms people. into psychoticism by means of the so-called. double bond (when people are simultaneously presented with mutually exclusive requirements). In this case, the schizophrenic, with t. Laing, not only not yavl. really sick, but even more normal than many "normal" inhabitants of this world. This position is characteristic of the "A." concept.

P. P. Ermine

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ANTHROPOLOGICAL THEORY
(C. Lombroso)

Lombroso.

birth, disease, death

conscience, aggressiveness behavior

crime personality

aggression and destructive impulses personality.

N.I. Povyakel

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ANTHROPOLOGICAL THEORY
(C. Lombroso)

A. t. Is the theory of forensic science, forensic psychology and personality psychology, which arose in Italy in the 70s. XIX century. It pays special attention to the problem of the relationship of mental illness of the person. and the properties of the criminal person. A. t. Is developed in the works Lombroso.

The essence of the approach of A. t. Boils down to the following: a crime committed by a criminal person, the same nature. phenomenon like birth, disease, death... Therefore, the causes of crime lie in the psychophysiol itself. nature of personality,

In A. t. The first classification of criminals has been developed: 1) born criminals; 2) mentally ill criminals; 3) criminals by passion; 4) random criminals.

Representatives of A. t. Asserted that there are "born criminals" possessing special anatomical-fiziol. and mental properties that make them, as it were, fatally doomed from birth to commit a crime. To anatomical-fiziol. signs of a "born criminal" A. t. refers to: an irregular, ugly shape of the skull, bifurcation of the frontal bone, small jaggedness of the edges of the cranial bones, facial asymmetry, irregularities in the structure of the brain, dull susceptibility to pain, etc.

In A. t. Characterological. features of the offender and pathological inherent to him. personality traits: highly developed vanity, cynicism, lack of guilt, ability to repentance and remorse conscience, aggressiveness, vindictiveness, a tendency to cruelty and violence, to exaltation and demonstrative forms behavior, a tendency towards the distinguishing features of a special community (tattoos, speech jargon, etc.).

Inborn criminality was first explained by atavism: a criminal was understood as a savage who could not adapt to the rules and norms of a civilized community. Later, representatives of A. t. Explained innate criminality as a form of "moral insanity", and, finally, as a form of epilepsy. The fight against crime, that is, should be carried out, according to Lombroso, by physical. destruction or life-long isolation of "congenital" criminals.

A. t. Rejected the provisions and approaches of the "classical" criminalistic. schools, for example, the "moral responsibility" of the criminal and the view of punishment as an act of retribution for the crime committed, opposing the view of punishment as a necessary measure of protection, society from a socially dangerous criminal personality.

A. t. Was of great importance in the search for ways and means of diagnosing personal. criminal, development of psychology and pathopsychology crime personality, in the formation of the foundations of forensic science and forensic psychology, in the search for appropriate measures of influence, including psychology., on the person. criminal.

A. t. Found and finds followers in many theories, such as the theory of chromosomal anomalies T. Klinefelter, genetic engineering, which influenced the development of a number of modern. personal theories, as well as in Freudian and neo-Freudian concepts of innate aggression and destructive impulses personality.

N.I. Povyakel

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GESTALT THERAPY
(F.S. Pearls)

The founder of this psychotherapist. directions - Perls... Representatives of this school yavl. See also L. Perls, P. Goodman, J. Simkin, R. Hefferlin, K. Naranjo. The development of the direction was influenced by the modern. west, philosophy (phenomenology, existentialism), Zen Buddhism, decomp. psychotherapeutic approaches: psychoanalysis, psychodrama , body-oriented psychotherapy.

Gestalt psychology terms were used in G. (figure, background, gestalt) to describe the satisfaction process needs and emots. response. The explanatory model for this approach is as follows. A person interacts with the environment in a contact-leaving rhythm. When an urgent need arises, it stands out as a figure against the background of others. experiences... To satisfy a need, a person must be aware of it and come into contact with the environment. After satisfaction, the gestalt is completed and the person leaves the field. New figure(need, emotion) that arises against the background of others requires a repetition of the cycle. However, this process is disturbed if the figure cannot become clear: other unmet needs that appear in the field of perception interfere with it. In this case, the need is not realized, and the person does not come into contact with the environment. Avoidance of contact is carried out by suppressing the need and leaving in thought, fantasy, internal. monologue. The "precipitations" of unfinished gestalts, unexperienced emotions "muddy" the process of awareness in the present, appearing in the field of perception as a figure. Feelings lose their spontaneity, being replaced by the assimilated experience of others.

Cessation of awareness of one's own. needs, the destruction of contact with the environment leads to a violation of the border "I" and interaction with people. Four neurotics are distinguished depending on the characteristics of this process. mechanism: fusion, introjection, projection, retroflection. Merging is manifested in the nondiscrimination of property. ideas, feelings, needs and experiences, ideas of other people. Introjection - thinking and acting on behalf of an interiorized authority, assimilation of strangers installations without consideration and criticism, transfer to own. belief system without analysis and restructuring. Projection consists in attributing properties to others. (more often negative) motives, motives, damn. Retroflection means split personal. into opposite parts (eg, "I despise myself").

Unlike neurotic. functioning, authentic personality realizes his needs and emotions, is in contact with the environment to satisfy them, is immersed in the process of life, and does not live in the past or future.

Based on this model, G.'s representatives developed the principles of therapy: "I-You", "what and how," "here and now." The result of psychotherapy yavl. awareness and full experience of sensations and emotions, the completion of gestalts, the client's confidence in his own. needs and a responsibility for their satisfaction. Psychotherapy is not aimed at the content of the repressed unconscious, but on the process of awareness in the present.

G. does not use interpretation. The most famous techniques are: zones of awareness, amplification techniques, shuttle technique, role-playing, the "empty chair" method.

For the therapist. relations in G. are characterized by the recognition of the client's responsibility for his feelings, needs, reliance on his nature. striving for growth. P. Goodman formulated this position in a paradoxical phrase: "The worst thing that you can do for a person is to help him." In the process of psychotherapy, personal autonomy develops, and people. becomes free and self-sufficient.

I. A. Grabskaya

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HUMANIST PSYCHOLOGY
(C.R. Rogers)

"I-concept", or "Self" defined as gestalt

need self-attitude behavior

V personality development from values consciousness

life experience will) and creativity

protective mechanisms

neurosis

P. P. Ermine

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HUMANIST PSYCHOLOGY
(C.R. Rogers)

For the theory of personality Rogers is characterized by all DOS. provisions of the G. of the item, within the framework of which this theory was created. As a base. movement the strength of the functioning of the person. the tendency towards self-actualization or the need of people is considered. realize their innate potentialities. One of the important features of Rogers' theory is yavl. phenomenological. and holistic approaches. According to the first, the basis of the personal. Psychol speaks. reality, that is, subjective experience, according to which reality is interpreted. According to the second, a person is an integrated whole, irreducible to separate. parts of his personality.

The fundamental concept of Rogers' theory is - "I-concept", or "Self" defined as gestalt, consisting of the perception of oneself and one's relationships with other people, as well as the values ​​of "I". The self-concept includes not only the perception of oneself as real, but also the idea of ​​oneself as the person would like to be (self-ideal). Despite the fact that "I" people. constantly changing as a result of experience, it always retains the qualities of a holistic gestalt, i.e. presentation of people about himself remains relatively constant.

In the trend of self-actualization is very important need people in positive attention both from other people and from oneself. The need for positive attention from other people makes people. influenced by social approval and disapproval. The need for positive self-attitude satisfied if the person finds his experience and behavior corresponding to their self-concept.

V personality development, according to Rogers' theory, significant yavl. attitude towards people. significant people, especially parents. If the child receives from significant others full acceptance and respect (unconditional positive attention), then his emerging self-concept corresponds to all innate potentialities. But if the child is faced with the acceptance of some and the rejection of other forms of behavior, if positive attention is presented with a condition, for example: "I will love you if you are good" (conditioned positive attention), then his self-concept will not fully correspond innate potentialities, but determined by society. The child will develop evaluative concepts about which of his actions and deeds are worthy of respect and acceptance, and which are not (conditions values). In a situation where the behavior of people. is assessed as unworthy, anxiety arises, which leads to a defensive repression from consciousness or distorting the discrepancy between real behavior and ideal patterns.

Depending on what kind of positive attention the person experienced during life, this or that type of personal is formed. According to Rogers, there are two opposite types: "fully functioning personality" and "unadapted personality". The first type is the ideal person who received unconditional positive attention. It is characterized by openness to experience(emotional depth and reflexivity), existential lifestyle (flexibility, adaptability, spontaneity, inductive thinking), organismic. trust (intuitive lifestyle, self-confidence, trust), empiric. freedom (subjective feeling of freedom will) and creativity(a tendency to create new and effective ideas and things).

The second type corresponds to a person who has received conditional positive attention. It has conditions of value, its self-concept does not correspond to its potentials. opportunities, his behavior is weighed down protective mechanisms... He lives according to a plan presented in advance, and not existentially, ignores his body, and does not trust him, feels rather controlled than free, more ordinary and conformal than creative.

Dos are associated with violations of the self-concept. forms of psychopathology personal. So, if the experiences of people. do not agree with his self-concept, he feels anxiety, which is not completely eliminated by his psychological. defenses, and development occurs neurosis... With a strong discrepancy between "I" and experiences, the defense may be ineffective and the self-concept is destroyed. In this case, psychotic is observed. violations. For psychol. help with decomp. personality disorders Rogers developed a method of psychotherapy known as "non-directive therapy" and "person-centered therapy", in which the key factor in constructive change in personality. yavl. the relationship between therapist and client.

P. P. Ermine

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HUMANIST PSYCHOANALYSIS
(E. Fromm)

The theory is personal. Fromm- This is an attempt to overcome the limitations of the psychoanalytic. theory with its biologic determination personality development and consider the role of sociological, political, economic, religious, cultural factors of its formation.

Personality, s. Fromm, is the integrity of innate and acquired mental properties that characterize individual and making it unique. Under the acquired properties, the author understood, first of all, the differences in character representing the problem of ethics and testifying to the level achieved by the individual in the art of living. Justifying social history. conditionality of character and personal. pers., Fromm introduces the concept of "social character" as a link between the psyche of the individual and the social structure of society. In his work "Man for himself" Fromm describes the following social types character:

1. Receptive orientation (taker) - people. imagines that the source of all goods lies outside; he is dependent and passive, trusting and sentimental; strives to "be loved" rather than love; depends not only on authorities, but also on people who are able to provide any support; always looking for an assistant, and if he helps others, then only in order to achieve their location.

2. Exploitative orientation (mastering) - pers. also believes that the source of benefits is outside, but not hoping to receive them as a gift, seeks to get them by force or cunning; he is not capable of creativity and therefore achieves love, possessions, ideas or emotions, borrowing them from others; such a person. aggressive, arrogant, arrogant, egocentric, self-confident, impulsive.

3. Possessive orientation (saving) - in contrast to the previous types, pers. does not believe that he can get something from the outside. the world; its safety is based on economy, and spending is perceived as a threat; his stinginess extends both to things and money, and to thoughts and feelings; he gravitates towards the past, he is frightened off by everything new; he is maniacally clean, rigid, suspicious, stubborn, prudent, loyal and reserved.

4. Market orientation (exchange) - personal. is treated as an item for sale. Success depends on how good the people are. can submit and sell himself to the extent he is able to enter into competition with others to achieve life goals. Self-esteem people depends on the opinion of other people, since its value is determined not by its human. qualities, but success in market competition.

5. Fruitful orientation, in contrast to the unproductive, yavl. ideal humanistic. ethics - people perceives himself as the embodiment of his powers-abilities, which are not hidden or alienated from him, but are freely realized. With the power of reason, he can understand the essence of phenomena; by the power of love - to destroy the wall separating one person. from another; by the power of imagination - to create.

The character of any person. represents a mixture of these five orientations, although one or two may stand out from the rest. Later, in his work "Human Soul", Fromm described two more types of character: necrophilic, embodying the focus on the dead, and the opposite biophilic, embodying love for life.

In addition to social conditions that affect the formation of personal. people, existential needs, yavl. important source activity: in establishing connections (in taking care of someone, in productive love), in overcoming (in active creative creation), in the roots (in a sense of stability and strength), in identity(in identity with oneself and dissimilarity to others), in a system of views and devotion (in an objective and rational view of nature and society, in dedication to something or someone).

The meaning of existence people. Fromm sees in decomp. ways to solve the main. the problem of the contradiction between freedom and security. Freedom won by the present. app. society, causes people. loss of a sense of security and a sense of personal insignificance. In search of safety, people sometimes voluntarily sacrifice freedom. In his work "Escape from Freedom" Fromm described the mechanisms of such "escape".

1. Authoritarianism is a tendency to abandon the independence of one's personal, to drain one's "I AM" with someone or something outside. to gain the strength that the individual himself lacks. It manifests itself in the desire for submission and domination, in masochistic and sadistic tendencies: the feeling of inferiority, the desire to gain power over people, exploit them and make them suffer.

2. Destructiveness - an attempt to overcome feelings of inferiority by destroying or subjugating others, a means of getting rid of an intolerable feeling of powerlessness. Destructiveness is aimed at eliminating all objects with which the individual has to compare himself, yavl. a reaction to anxiety caused by any threat to life. interests, overcoming constraint and isolation.

3. Automating conformism- the desire to stop being yourself. A person fully assimilates the type of personality offered to him by the generally accepted template, and becomes what others want him to be. The distinction between self. "I" and the surrounding world, and at the same time a conscious fear of loneliness and impotence.

In contrast to the mechanisms of "escape from freedom" there is an experience of positive freedom, thanks to which one can get rid of the feeling of loneliness and alienation, be autonomous and unique without losing the feeling of unity with other people. One of Ch. conditions for such an existence, Fromm considered love, which he interpreted in a broad sense, as an art equivalent to the art of living.

P. P. Ermine

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DISPOSITIONAL THEORY OF PERSONALITY
(G.W. Allport)

Allport defines personal as the real essence of each individual person, unique in its originality. The personality of the scientist is called. what lies behind the specific actions of people. inside himself. "Personal. Is a dynamic organization of those psychophysical systems within an individual that determine what is characteristic of him. behavior and thinking. "It is not a static entity, although it has a fundamental structure, it is constantly evolving.

As well as intellect and physical constitution temperament- this is the primary genetic. material from which the personal is built. It is a particularly important hereditary aspect of emotion. nature people (along with the ease of emotional excitement, the prevailing background mood, mood swings, the intensity of emotions). Character yavl. ethical concept and traditionally associated with some kind of moral standard or system values, according to which deeds personal In Allport's wording, character is a valued personal, and a personal. Is an invaluable character.

The most important unit of analysis of what people are and how they differ from each other in their behavior is yavl. personality hell. Allport defines it as neuropsychology, a structure capable of transforming functionally equivalent stimuli, stimulating and directing equivalent (that is, degrees of stable) forms of adaptive and expressive behavior. A trait is a tendency to behave in a similar manner over a wide range. situations... The totality of traits ensures the stability of the behavior of the person, his recognition, and predictability. Various stimuli cause the same response, just as responses in the form of feelings, sensations, interpretations, actions have the same function and meaning. Personality traits do not dormant. Situations in which personal. it turns out most often - these are, as a rule, the very ones that she actively seeks to get into.

In Allport's later works, the features were called dispositions, among which three types can be distinguished: cardinal, central and secondary. Cardinal disposition, or ch. passion, very few people have. This is a highly generalized disposition, so pervasive in behavior that almost all actions of people. can be reduced to its influence. Among individuals with such a disposition, one can name Don Juan, Jeanne d'Arc, Albert Schweitzer. individuality and represent such tendencies in the behavior of people, which are easily detected by others and are mentioned in the recommendation. letters (e.g. punctuality, attentiveness, a responsibility). Secondary dispositions - less noticeable, less stable, less generalized traits such as food and dress preferences, situationally determined characteristics, special installations.

Personal not explicit a set of disparate dispositions, it presupposes unity, integration of all structures. elements of personality. There is a certain principle of organizing assessments, motives, inclinations, sensations into a coherent whole, which Allport offers called. proprium. Proprium is a positive, creative, growth-seeking and evolving human property. nature, perceived as the most important and central. It is about such a part of the subject. experiences like "mine" oh selves... Proprium is a kind of organizing and uniting force, the purpose of which is to form the uniqueness of human life.

Allport identifies seven aspects of the self that are involved in the development of the proprium from childhood to adulthood, calling them propriotic functions. As a result of their final consolidation, the "I" is formed as an object of the subject, cognition and sensation. Stages of development of the proprium: 1) the sensation of one's body, which forms the bodily selfhood, which remains throughout life a support for self-awareness; 2) a sense of self-identity, a significant moment of which is the awareness of oneself through speech as a determinant, and an important person, the appearance of a sense of integrity and continuity of "I" associated with the name of the child; 3) a sense of self-esteem as a sense of pride in the fact that certain actions are already being performed independently; the most important source of increase self-esteem throughout childhood; 4) the expansion of the boundaries of the self, which arises as children realize that they own not only their physical. body, but also defined. significant elements of ext. the world, including people; 5) the image of oneself, when the child begins to focus on the expectations of significant loved ones, imagining what "I am good" and "I am bad" are; 6) rational management of oneself, yavl. stage of pronounced conformism, moral and social obedience, when the child learns to rationally decide life. problems, dogmatically believing that family, peers and religion are always right; 7) proprietary pursuit, yavl. setting promising life goals, the feeling that life has meaning.

Above the proprium is the cognition of oneself, synthesizing the listed ontogenetic. stages and representing the subjective side of the "I", realizing the "I-objective". At the conclusion, the proprium stage is related to unique ability people To self-knowledge and self-awareness.

Individual is a dynamic (motivated) developing system. Adequate theory motivation, according to Allport, should consider the prospective goals of the person, his intentions. The key to understanding people. yavl. the answer to the question: "What do you want to do in five years?" According to Allport, pers. free from the past — links with the past are historical, not functional.

Maturation of people. Is a continuous, lifelong process of becoming. Mature behavior subjects, in contrast to neurotic subjects, is functionally autonomous and motivated by conscious processes. Mature person characterized by the following features: 1) has wide boundaries "I"; 2) capable of warm, cordial social relations; 3) demonstrates emotion. non-concern and self-acceptance; 4) has a healthy sense of reality; 5) has the ability to self-knowledge and a sense of humor; 6) has a whole life. philosophy.

Allport's theory is popular among clinical practitioners. psychologists, psychoanalysts.

T.M. Titarenko

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INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY
(A.Adler)

The basic principles of I. p. - the integrity of the mental life personal., striving for excellence as the main. motivational force in the life of a person, as well as a person's social affiliation.

According to Adler, people try to compensate for the sense of their own. failure, developing its own unique life style, in which they strive to achieve bogus goals focused on excellence or excellence. Personal lifestyle develops in a child in the first four to five years of life and is most clearly manifested in her installations and behavior, aimed at solving three DOS. life. tasks: professional, cooperation and love. Adverse childhood situations, among which Adler emphasizes organ inferiority, excessive guardianship and rejection by parents, contribute to the outgrowth of feelings of inadequacy into inferiority complex- exaggeration of property. weakness and failure.

The second driving force behind personal development. yavl. social interest, defined by Adler as pursuit to cooperate with other people to achieve common goals. Social interest has innate inclinations, but is finally formed in the course of upbringing. With t. Z. Adler, the degree of manifestation of social interest yavl. an indicator of mental health, its underdevelopment can cause neuroses, drug addiction, crime, etc. social and psychopathological. deviations.

Based on the assessment of the severity of social interest and the degree activity personal when solving Ch. life. tasks, Adler singles out four type of installations lifestyle concomitants: managing, receiving, avoiding, and socially helpful.

The emergence of neuroses, according to Adler, is associated with an erroneous lifestyle and insufficient development of social interest. In this regard, psychotherapy should be aimed at correcting the erroneous lifestyle, eliminating false goals and the formation of new life goals that will help you realize your life. potential. These therapeutics are achieved. goals through understanding the patient, increasing his level of understanding of himself and the development of social interest.

Main I. p. methods - interviews and analysis of early childhood memories.

N. V. Chepeleva

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CATHOLIC EXISTENTIALISM
(G.O. Marcel)

The path to truth, according to Marseille, leads through the acts of int. self-awareness, the condition of which is concentration, a meditative state of turning to oneself, the establishment of "inner silence". People - a pilgrim striving for his own. int. "I" that is constantly changing. Being yavl. the process of eternal renewal, continuous birth. "To be" means to be on the way. If people. spends his a life to repeat action supporting primitive vegetation, he loses his humanity. being. Sensual temptations, the joy of the possession of things, and other "tricks of the devil" yavl. obstacles on the way to true being.

My "I", according to Marcel, yavl. face and personal As a person, I am a part of society, one of many. How personal. I am unique, peculiar spiritual being, something the only thing that cannot be viewed from the outside, studied empirically. Life is a test period, personality. a journey whose purpose is salvation. In the fight against evil, the stake in which is being, and is meaning of life... To believe is to forget yourself in the name of God. Death frees people. from status pilgrim, giving eternal reward. A true person is a person, striving towards the world of higher values... "I" to the extent that it remains closed in itself, remains a slave to its sensations, desires and dull anxiety, is outside of good and evil. Personal only, int. the power of my "I", imposes on me the existence of a world in which there is good and evil. Personal Is the answer to the call, the movement to transcendences.

Man is not able to find the truth in himself; he finds in himself a readiness to accept it from the side of the higher, to feel the deities, the truth in the act love... Involvement is complete humility and loyalty to the submission of people. higher spiritual power, such a state of mind that brings grace closer, invoking the presence of God. Engagement creates hope as a state of grace, a state that erases longing and despair. Love allows people. to discover the presence of being in another, to see its own. reality and value that exist independently of the "I". The discovery of being in the other enriches oneself. being, increases mental strength, thanks to which it is possible to reject the beggarly world of matter and rise to the riches of the transcendental world. Human personal sees himself as will to surpass everything that it is and at the same time is not, as the will to surpass the reality that does not satisfy it.

Human personal included in the flesh, consciousness is embodied. People carries a responsibility for the way he uses his life. His relationship to his flesh is revealed. the first measure of his qualities as a person. Directly given person. the reality is inseparable mystical. self-conscious connections subject with own body yavl. original point of reflection... This connection is incarnation as a condition of existential experience. The conditions of incarnate existence are cruel; they would be intolerable to consciousness if it did not have the ability to dissipate and be distracted. Physicality implies being inscribed in space and time, the inevitable approach of death.

Existence in the flesh is manifest. the first great danger to the soul. Through the flesh, we become accustomed to basing our knowledge in practice; through her, the outside penetrates into the inside. spiritual world... At the same time, the flesh seeks to seize power over us, to deprive us of our will. Obeying her needs, we get used to viewing the world in terms of "see" and "have". The desire to possess things that people have. no, it gives rise to suffering. The fear of losing what he already possesses breeds fear. Pessimism is associated only with the unenlightened state of the subject, for ontological. the structure of the world gives place to hope. Hope and despair form a religious ethic. antithesis, which is the essence of the ontological. the choice before which the person is put. in your being. Int. justification of the human. life yavl. presence in it meaning not belonging to life. an order transcendental to existence itself. This higher meaning is salvation.

The concept of freedom unrelated to God's grace is blasphemy. Freedom, understood as the desire to transform the world in accordance with the aspirations of people, is a madness born of satanic pride. To be free means to be in control of oneself, to surrender oneself to the slavery of flesh and passion, or to surrender oneself to God.

T.M. Titarenko

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CONSTITUTIONAL THEORY OF PERSONALITY

Concepts are based on the idea of ​​determination behavior personal constitutional features. The constitution means the structure of the human body, congenital fiziol. specifications. Ideas biol. conditioning individual differences developed by Hippocrates, L. Rostan, G. Viola, Kretschmer, Sheldon, K. Konrad.

Kretschmer identified four types of constitution: asthenic, athletic, picnic, dysplastic. Asthenic is distinguished by a fragile physique, high growth, linear proportions, a flat chest, narrow shoulders. The picnic looks obese, it has an excess of adipose tissue, pronounced peripheral development. parts of the body, roundness of forms. Athletics is characterized by well-developed muscles, a strong physique, broad shoulders and narrow hips. The proportions and characteristics of dysplastic are difficult to describe.

The types of constitution were assigned a predisposition to determinate. mental illness. Kretschmer noted that manic-depressive psychosis is more common in picnics, and schizophrenia - in asthenics and less often in athletes, epilepsy - preim. in athletes and asthenics. Observations have shown that healthy people may exhibit traits close to characteristic features diseases. Based on the analysis of the relationship of constitutional characteristics with psychol. features Kretschmer identified three types temperament healthy people: schizotimic, cyclothymic, ixotimic (dysplastic does not correlate with a definite type of temperament). The schizotimic is characterized by isolation, a tendency to abstract reasoning, poor adaptation to the social environment. Cyclothymic is an emotion. a person who knows how to establish contacts and is inclined to be practical. activities. Ixotimic is described as restrained, rigid, petty.

Kretschmer postulated a direct correspondence between the constitutional characteristics and the type of temperament: cyclothymia was attributed to a picnic, schizothymia to asthenics, ixotimia to athletics. Fiziol. and psychol. features have common grounds in the neuro-humoral system of regulation of the body. However, the behavior of people. is determined by other factors: the system relationship and values, peculiarities of upbringing, etc.

The factor of the constitution is considered as determining in Sheldon's concept. Constitutional characteristics were analyzed in it as a "coordinate system" for describing the behavior of people. With t. Z. Sheldon, biol. structure (morphogenotype) is the basis of the external, observable physical. characteristics individual(phenotype). The morphogenotype is determined not only by physical. features but also behavior.

A somatotype is a specific manifestation of a morphogenotype, a general line of phenotypes that unfolds in time. The method of its detection is " test determining the somatotype. "It is based on the measurement of physical. characteristics and expert analysis of standard photographs. After analyzing the extensive material, Sheldon identified three main characteristics that determine the somatotype: endomorphism, mesomorphism, ectomorphism. They were put in accordance with the predominantly development of three embryonic layers: endodermal, mesodermal, ectodermal.

Type is described as the numerical ratio of three characteristics on a seven-point scale. The predominance of endomorphism (7-1-1) leads to the development in people. int. organs, soft, spherical ext. forms. "Pure" mesomorph (1-7-1) has developed muscle tissues, rectangular outlines of the body and its parts. A person with the dominance of ectomorphism (1-1-7) is distinguished by thinness, linear proportions of the body; his brain is large. The theoretically possible number of somatotypes is 343. However, slightly more than two-thirds of this number were found.

In addition to the primary, the secondary components of the physical are highlighted. characteristics. Among them, dysplasia (inharmonious, uneven mixture of main components in different parts organism), gynandromorphy (the degree to which the physical characteristics of an individual correspond to the same characteristics in representatives of the other sex. Hermaphroditism is assessed by the G-index), "breed purity" (T-index, which characterizes the aesthetic attractiveness of the physique).

Based on statistical data. analysis identified three types of temperament. The first type was called viscerotonic and was characterized by aspiration to relaxation, love of comfort, satisfaction from eating, sound sleep, behavior aimed at the approval of others, need in communication, contact, ease in expressing feelings. The most striking features of the second type are somatotonics - confidence in movements, proud posture, free voice, the need to discharge energy, physical. activity, energy, endurance, psychol. insensitivity, directness in dealing with people, need to dominate, low empathy, aggressiveness, courage, desire for risk, inclination to adventure, the need for active action in difficult times. For the third type - cerebrotonics - stiffness, awkwardness in movements, a choked, inhibited voice, restless shallow sleep, sensitivity to pain, fast, impulsive reactions, avoidance of standard actions, fear of society, timidity, indecision, secrecy, shyness, the need for loneliness in difficult times, subjectivity in thinking, a tendency to reasoning.

Found a correspondence between constitutional and psychol. type. The explanation of this connection may consist of a number of factors: 1) genetic. conditioning fiziol. and psychol. characteristics; 2) tendencies to form a similar life. experience in people with the same constitutional type (in culture stereotypes of response for people with different types physique and each specific individual acts on the basis of these expectations); 3) the mutual influence of psychol. characteristics on the one hand, as well as the phenotype and somatotype of people. - with another.