FEDERAL EDUCATION AGENCY
State educational institution of higher professional education
IZHEVSK STATE TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY
FACULTY "Management and Marketing"
Department "Finance and Credit"
ABSTRACT ON SOCIOLOGY
Not a topic: "The concept of social stratification by P. Sorokin"
Completed by: student of group 2-52-2 Rassamakhna A.S.
Checked by: teacher Pecherskikh S.P.
Izhevsk, 2011
Introduction ……………………………………………………………. …… 3
Social stratification ………………………. ………………………. 4
Economic stratification …………………………………… .. …… ..5
Political stratification. ………………………………………. …… .6
Professional stratification …………………………………. …… .8
Conclusion ……………………………………………………………… 20
References ……………………………………………………… ... 21
INTRODUCTION
Social stratification, according to the large encyclopedic dictionary (BES), is a sociological concept that denotes: the structure of society and its individual strata; a system of signs of social differentiation; branch of sociology.
In modern sociology, there are many concepts of the social structure of society, the spectrum of which is expanding over time.
In the theories of social stratification on the basis of such characteristics as education, living conditions, occupation, income, psychology, religion, etc., society is divided into "upper", "middle" and "lower" classes and strata.
P.A. Sorokin is a prominent sociologist of the twentieth century who made a huge contribution to the development of both Russian and American sociology. His works contain valuable material that underlies modern social science.
PA Sorokin is one of the founders of the modern sociological theory of social stratification, therefore, a thorough analysis of the main provisions of his theory in the light of his scientific views and historical reality is so important.
The relevance and significance of the topic of this work is explained by the fact that any society is differentiated both horizontally and vertically. Horizontal differentiation is due to the natural-historical distribution of the types and spheres of human activity (agriculture, cattle breeding, handicrafts; workers in the extractive and manufacturing industries and their subdivisions) and the technical division of labor (performers of different types of labor and labor functions).
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
“Social stratification is the differentiation of a given set of people (population) into classes in a hierarchical rank,” expressed in the existence of the upper and lower strata, the uneven distribution of rights and privileges, responsibilities and duties, the presence and absence of social values, power and influence among the members of that or another community. So or approximately so thought social stratification P. Sorokin - the man who was the first in the world to give a complete theoretical explanation of this phenomenon, and who confirmed his theory with the help of a huge empirical material.
There are numerous forms of stratification, but it is worth highlighting 3 main ones:
Economic
Political
Professional
Of course, they are all closely intertwined and interconnected.
ECONOMIC STRATIFICATION
Economic stratification, according to P. Sorokin, contains two main types of fluctuations: the first refers to the economic rise or fall of the group, the second - to the growth or contraction of stratification within the group. The question of whether a group rises to a higher economic level or falls can be solved in general terms on the basis of fluctuations in per capita national income and wealth, measured in monetary units. Based on these data, P. Sorokin believes, it is possible to compare the economic status of various groups.
Any society, passing from a primitive to a more developed state, reveals an increase in economic inequality, which is expressed in changes in the height and profile of the economic pyramid of society. Moreover, under normal social conditions, the economic cone of a developed society fluctuates within certain limits. Its shape is relatively constant. In extreme circumstances (for example, a revolution), these limits can be violated, and the profile of economic stratification can become, according to P. Sorokin, either very flat, or very convex and high. In both cases, this situation is short-lived. And if the economically "flat society" does not perish, then the "flat" is quickly replaced by the strengthening of economic stratification. If economic inequality becomes too strong and reaches a point of overextension, then the top of society is destined to collapse or be overthrown. Thus, P. Sorokin postulates, in any society at any time there is a struggle between the forces of stratification and equalization. The former work constantly and steadily, the latter - spontaneously, impulsively, using violent methods. In other words, there are cycles in which the rise in economic inequality is replaced by its weakening.
POLITICAL STRATIFICATION
Political stratification, according to P. Sorokin, is also subject to periodic fluctuations under the influence of various factors. Among the huge number of them, the scientist singles out two main ones, the most significant, in his opinion, affecting political stratification: the size of the political organization; biological (race, gender, age), psychological (intellectual, strong-willed, emotional) and social (economic, cultural, political) homogeneity or heterogeneity of its members. At the same time, P. Sorokin revealed the following patterns.
1. Under generally equal conditions, when the size of a political organization increases, that is, the number of its members increases, political stratification also increases, and vice versa. For example, a larger population dictates the need to create a more developed and large management apparatus, and an increase in management personnel leads to its hierarchization and stratification.
2. When the heterogeneity of the members of the organization increases, stratification also increases, and vice versa, since the increase in the heterogeneity of the population leads to increased political inequality. For example, the size and heterogeneity of such European political organisms as Switzerland, Norway, Denmark, Sweden, the Netherlands, Bulgaria, Hungary and some others are small, in fact, their political stratification is much less than the stratification of larger political organisms, such as the British Empire, Germany. , France, Russia.
3. When both of the above factors work in the same direction, then the stratification changes even more, and vice versa. When one or both factors suddenly object (for example, in the case of military conquest or the voluntary unification of several previously independent political organizations), then political stratification is greatly enhanced. With an increase in the role of one factor and a decrease in the role of another, they restrain their mutual influence on the fluctuation of political stratification.
4. The forces of political equalization operate simultaneously with the forces of political stratification and cyclically (as in economic stratification). Sometimes alignment forces prevail in one place, stratifying in another. At the same time, any increase in the leveling factors causes an increase in opposition from the opposite forces. So, society in the first period of the social revolution often resembles a flat trapezoid in shape, without the upper echelons of power and their hierarchy. However, this situation is extremely unstable, and after a short period of time, an old or new hierarchy of groups is established. Thus, a too flat profile is only a transitional political state of society. If stratification becomes too high and embossed, its upper layers are sooner or later cut off by revolution, war, introduction of new laws, etc. In these ways, the political organism returns to a state of equilibrium when the shape of the social cone is either very flat or very high.
5. There is no constant trend of transition from monarchy to republic, from autocracy to democracy, from minority rule to majority rule, and vice versa. Rather, there is a periodicity of political fluctuations, cyclicality in changes in political regimes (different authors point to the existence of such cycles with a length of 15-16, 30-33, 100, 125, 300, 500, 700 and 1200 years). At the same time, the profile of political stratification is more mobile and fluctuates within wider limits, more often and more impulsively than the profile of economic stratification.
PROFESSIONAL STRATIFICATION
The existence of professional stratification is established from two main groups of facts. Obviously, certain classes of professions have always formed the upper social strata, while other professional groups have always been at the bottom of the social cone. The most important professional classes are not located horizontally, that is, at the same social level, but, so to speak, overlap. Secondly, the phenomenon of professional stratification is also found within each professional sphere. Whether we take the field of agriculture or industry, trade or management or any other professions, people employed in these areas are stratified into many ranks and levels: from the upper ranks, which exercise control, to the lower ones, which they control and who are subordinate to their "bosses in a hierarchy. "," directors "," authorities "," managers "," chiefs ", etc. Professional stratification, thus, manifests itself in these two main forms: 1) in the form of a hierarchy of main professional groups (interprofessional stratification) and 2) in the form of stratification within each professional class (intraprofessional stratification).
The existence of interprofessional stratification manifested itself in different ways in the past and makes itself felt ambiguously now. In the bush society, it was expressed in the existence of lower and higher castes. According to the classical theory of the caste hierarchy, caste-professional groups are more likely to overlap than to be located side by side at the same level.
There are four castes in India - brahmanas, kshatriyas, vaisyas, sudras. Among them, each preceding one is superior in origin and status to the next. The legitimate pursuits of the Brahmins are education, teaching, performing sacrifices, performing worship, charity, inheritance and harvesting in the fields. The activities of the kshatriyas are the same, with the exception of teaching and performing worship, and, perhaps, collecting donations. They are also assigned administrative functions and military duties. The legitimate occupation of a Vaisya is the same as that of a Kshatriya, with the exception of administrative and military duties. They are distinguished by farming, cattle breeding and trade. Serving all three castes is prescribed for a sudra. The higher the caste he serves, the higher his social dignity.
The real number of castes in India is much higher. And therefore, the professional hierarchy between them is extremely essential. In ancient Rome, among the eight guilds, the first three played a significant political role and were of paramount importance from a social point of view, and therefore were hierarchically higher than all the others. Their members constituted the first two social classes. This stratification of professional corporations in a modified form persisted throughout the history of Rome.
Concepts social stratification P. A. Sorokin
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Social structure and social stratification societies (2)
Abstract >> SociologyMethodological approaches to analysis social stratification... In sociology, there are many concepts social stratification society. a). Marxist ... 1927 P. Sorokin... According to Sorokin, there are two types social mobility vertical and ...
Social interactions
3. general laws of society
4 people
5.Society management
2. Judgment belonging to O. Comte:
1.sociology originated in ancient Greece
Sociology is grounded in experience and real facts
3.the task of science is to provide an essential explanation of phenomena
4.sociology is an objective science
5. sociology studies "meaningful things"
3. E. Durkheim believed that sociology:
1.science about society
The Science of Social Facts
3.science of social behavior
4.science of natural science
5.science about natural factors
4. Object of sociology:
1 person
2.Society
Social life of a person, group, society
4.behavior patterns
5.the set of acting individuals
5. Applied Sociology:
1.microsociological theory of society
2.social engineering
3.Macrosociological theory of society, patterns and principles of this area of knowledge
A set of research methods and procedures
5.one of the directions in modern sociology
6. Objectivity in sociology is ensured by:
1.cognition
Rejection of ideology and bias
3.typing
4.filtration
5.Integration
7. An example of imitation of sociology natural science considered:
1.Ch. Montesquieu
2. K. Marx
3. Zh.Zh. Russo
O. Comte
5.G. Spencer
8. The subject of sociology:
1.social relationships and social interactions
2.interpersonal interactions of people
3.personality
4.location of productive forces management of society
5.Society management
Branch of science on the process of social relations and interactions between individuals:
sociology
cultural studies
philosophy
political science
psychology
Science that originated from the ideas of the Enlightenment and as a reaction to the French Revolution:
psychology
anthropology
philosophy
sociology
cultural studies
Society as an integral system and the processes occurring in it are studied:
1.culturology
2.philosophy
3. history
4.sociology
5.religious studies
Sociology as a science originated in:
2. XX century
3.440s of the XIX century
4. 18th century
5. Ancient Greece
13. The term "sociology" was introduced by:
1. M. Weber
2. K. Marx
5. Aristotle
14. The founder of sociology:
1. Aristotle
2. N. Machiavelli
3. C. Montesquieu
5. K. Marx
The term "sociology" appeared in:
the beginning of the 17th century.
the middle of the XIX century.
the first half of the XX century.
40s of the nineteenth century
Ancient Greece
16. Reasons for the belated emergence of sociology:
1.the complexity of the object of its research
2.objective regularity of the development of society
3.Scientists discovered social patterns with less success than the laws of the universe
4.insufficient level of knowledge development at the time of its occurrence
5.natural and exact sciences were considered more important than social
17. Sphere public life, which began to be investigated earlier than others:
1.spiritual
2.political
3.economic
4.social in the broadest sense of the word
5.social in the narrow sense of the word
18. A philosopher in sociology and a sociologist in philosophy R. Aron considered:
1.O. Comte
2.G. Spencer
3. M. Weber
4. P. Sorokin;
5. E. Durkheim.
19. The direction in sociology, whose representatives tried to reduce the laws of the development of society to the laws of natural selection:
social Darwinism
behaviorism
mororganism-mendelism
individual choice
life world
20. A trend in sociology that believes that the organization of social life is based on special laws - the laws of imitation:
instinctiveism
"Crowd theory"
interactionism
social conflict
psychoanalysis
21. The question "A thief makes a hole in the fence or a hole in the fence makes a thief" belongs to:
1.the psychologist
2.the philosopher
4.sociologist
5.Teacher
22. Science that studies the integral sociocultural space:
1.philosophy
2.story
3.Psychology
4.culturology
5.sociology
23. Levels of sociological knowledge:
1.fundamental
2.sectoral
3.Empirical
4.theoretical
5.empirical, theoretical
24. The field of sociological knowledge that studies large-scale social objects:
1.microsociology
2.sectoral sociology
3.macrosociology
4.methodology
25. The field of sociological knowledge, focused on the study of individuals and their interaction with the social environment:
1.microsociology
2.macrosociology
3.General sociological theory
4.sectoral sociology
5.special sociological theory
Topic 2. The main stages of the formation of sociology as a science
26. The "Law of Three Stages" developed:
1. K. Marx
2.P.Sorokin
3.M. Kovalevsky
5. M. Weber
27. Sections of sociology "social statics" and "social dynamics" are developed:
1.G. Spencer
2. E. Durkheim
3. A. Gobino
4. O. Comte
5. Plato
28. The social Darwinian tradition in sociology was represented by:
1.L. Gumplovich
2. Z. Freud
3. Charles Darwin
5. J. Gobineau
29. The central concept of K. Marx's sociology:
2.social action
3.social space
4.social fact
5.social system
30. The concept of "materialistic understanding of history" was introduced by:
1.Ch. Montesquieu
2. K. Marx
3. Zh.Zh. Russo
5.R. Dahrendorf
31. The idea of social solidarity belongs to:
1.T. Hobbes
2.V. Pareto
3.E. Durkheim
4. Plato
32. Ch. Valikhanov about contemporary Kazakh society:
1.slave society
2.patriarchal-feudal society
3.capitalist society
4.communist society
5.post-industrial society
33. Ch. Valikhanov on the social situation of the people:
1. the interests of noble and wealthy people are for the most part hostile to the interests of the masses, the majority
2.class struggle is tearing society apart
3.An increase in the number of livestock increases the well-being of the people
4. preservation of estates contributes to the improvement of the social status of the people
5.the oppression of the common people is a historical necessity
2.R. Merton
3. T. Parsons
4.G. Spencer
5. E. Durheim
35. The reasons for social injustice in society, according to Abai:
1.black ice (jute) barymta
2.tribal feuds
3.division of society into rich and poor and the contradiction of their interests
4.inaction of adopted laws, customs and traditions
5.lagging behind science, education, culture
36. Abai Kunanbayev on the social role of science:
1.practice without science can give everything
2.Science is a profitable thing, it can be achieved by work, desire
3.Science gives a person light, shows the way, ways out of ignorance
4.Science makes it possible to reveal the secrets of the universe
5.science is the basis of inequality
37. Abai on the social role of labor:
1.barymta is one of the ways of enrichment, prosperity
2. all types of labor are useful, incl. and wage labor
3.work contributes to the all-round development of a person
4.The source of wealth can be speculation, the market, theft
5.work is the source of independence
38. Factors named by Abay influencing the socialization of the individual:
1.laziness, litigation
2.politics, religion, school
3. striving, work, contentment, thoughtfulness, nobility
4. labor, industry
5.market, wealth, nobility
The main work of O. Comte:
"On the division of social labor"
"Course in Positive Philosophy"
"Suicide"
"History and class consciousness"
"Protestant Ethics and the Spirit of Capitalism"
40. The concept introduced by E. Durkheim as a link between society and value concepts as the interaction of individual consciousnesses:
analytic concept
operating concept
model concepts
ideal type
solidarity
41. The scientist, who in his work "Course of Positive Philosophy" considered "the law of three stages of the intellectual development of consciousness":
P. Sorokin
M.Kovalevsky
Aristotle
42. The founder of the biological (organic) direction in sociology:
G. Spencer
E. Durkheim
T.Parsons
43. The first special work on sociology:
"Sovereign" N. Machiavelli
K. Marx's "Capital"
Aristotle's "Politics"
"Course in Positive Philosophy" by O. Comte
"The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State" by F. Engels
44. The founder of social Darwinism:
G. Spencer
E. Durkheim
P. Sorokin
45. Law of O. Comte which became the theory of social development:
1.the law of three degrees
2.the law of the structure of society
3.the law of instincts
4.the law of the classification of sciences
P. Sorokin
F. Engels
G. Simmel
R. Dahrendorf
A. Giddens
47. The statement "The history of all hitherto existing societies was the history of the struggle of classes" belongs to:
1.K. Marx
2.M. Gandhi
3.E. Durkheim
4. D. Bellou
5.T. Merton
48. Suicide as a social phenomenon was considered by:
1.E. Durkheim
2.T.Parsons
3.G. Spencer
5.R. Merton
49. According to E. Durheim, organic solidarity is generated by:
1.division of social labor
2.difference between individuals
3.Structural Violence
4. massive repression
5.Injustice in resource allocation
50. The systematic approach to the analysis of society substantiated:
1. Z. Freud
2. F. Nietzsche
3. K. Marx
5.G. Spencer
Topic 3. Paradigms of sociology of the XX century
51. M. Weber formulated:
1.the law of social harmony
2.the importance of understanding the subjective meaning
3.the law of conformity of productive forces to the nature of production relations
4.system of theoretical concepts
5.understanding of society as a value-normative system
52. The founder of "understanding" sociology:
1. E. Durkheim
2. T. Parsons
3. M. Weber
4. K. Marx
5.V. Pareto
53. At the origins of the sociology of conflict was:
1.R. Dahrendorf
2. K. Marx
3.A. Quetelet
4.L. Coser
5. T. Parsons
54.The basic concept in the theory of structural functionalism:
1.social system
2.Society
4.social conflict
5.compromise
55. The central concept of phenomenological sociology:
1.life world
2.individual choice
3.social product
4.traditions
5.social process
56. The school, which arose on the basis of the concept of E. Durkheim:
1.structural and functional analysis
2.positivist sociology
3.conflict sociology
4. evolutionary organic direction
5.biological and ethnological school
1.M. Kovalevsky
4.P. Sorokin
5. T. Parsons
58. An American sociologist who considered balance as the most important feature of society:
1.P.Sorokin
2. T. Parsons
3. M. Weber
4.V. Pareto
5. K. Marx
59. An independent direction of sociological research empirical sociology became in:
4.Germany
60. The names of J.G. Mead, C.H. Cooley, M. Weber connects:
1.Positism
2.structural functionalism
3.social behaviorism
4.naturalistic direction
5. conflictology
61. The concept that considers social life as a result of the interaction of people:
R. Park's "formal school"
T. Parsons' structural functionalism
G. Simmel's "theory of conflict"
psychological evolutionism E. Giddens
Fromm's neo-Freudianism
62. School considering sociology as a behavioral science:
European
American
french
german
63. The development of bureaucracy as a positive perspective of the historical process proved sociologist:
T. Parsons
A. Toldner
A. Prigogine
64. "Ideal type" in M. Weber's sociology:
1.empirical reality
3.theoretical design
4.individual choice
1.P.Sorokin
2. T. Parsons
3. M. Weber
4. K. Marx
5.R. Merton
66. The great bourgeois antipode of Karl Marx:
1. M. Weber
2.G. Simmel
3.R. Dahrendorf
4.P.Sorokin
5.T. Spencer
67. K. Marx, G. Simmel, R. Dahrendorf - what unites these names:
1.these are famous figures of the international labor movement
2.proponents of the theory of social conflict
3. famous western economists
4.Representatives of positivism
5. the founders of "understanding sociology"
68. General questions of the theory of society found the greatest development in the works:
E. Durkheim
P. Sorokin
P. Florensky
N. Berdyaeva
69. The problem of group behavior was developed by:
1.G. Spencer
2.G. Le Bon
3.T. Parsons
4. J. Gobineau
71.The theory of the functional ability of the elite was developed:
1.P.Sorokin
2. T. Parsons
3.M. Weber
4.V. Pareto
5.L. Koser
72. Follower of Z. Freud A. Adler striving for leadership explains:
a sense of superiority
a state of frustration
feelings of inferiority
interiorization
social conflict
73. According to M. Weber, in addition to income and prestige, the criteria of social stratification include:
education
nationality
belonging to a significant clan
74. The type of behavior according to R. Merton, implying the correspondence of cultural goals and their means achievements:
conformity
innovation
ritualism
retretism
75. Three types of cultures: post-figurative, configurative and prefigurative suggested:
T.Parsons
S. Aisenstadt
S. Ikonnikova
Topic 4. Society as a social system
76. Society:
1.set of acting personalities
2.the set of different groups
3.A set of people engaged in a joint social life
4.a unifying principle in the development of different peoples
5.a certain stage of historical development
77. The elements of society as a system include links between:
1.Energy resources of the country and development of production
2.people in the process of creating cultural property
3.Self-actualization
4.reflection
5.social technology
78. Element of society:
1.ecosystem
2. empathy
4.heuristic
5.fertile land
79. The hallmark of society is:
1.disorganization
2.no integrating force
3.the ability to maintain and reproduce internal relationships
4.the presence of extra-institutional ties
5.inability to meet the needs of individuals
80. Closed society:
1.with no publicity, freedom of speech and press
2.that interacts with other societies
3.which easily changes and adapts to the circumstances of the external environment
4.individual community of collective ideas, feelings, beliefs
5.Commonity of fundamental norms and values
81. A characteristic feature of a traditional society:
1.the rule of law
2.predominance of industry
3.dynamic development
4.tradition as the main method of social regulation
5.recognition of the value of the human person
82. A civilized society guarantees a person:
1.equal share of social wealth with others
2. prosperity and success in professional activity
3.Longevity
4.Opportunity to get secondary education
5.regulation of social behavior
83. Synonym for pre-industrial society:
1.primary
2.traditional
3.simple
4.information
5.horticultural
84. Characteristic features of modern society:
1.willingness and desire for development, change
2.social mobility
3. tight planning
4.criticism, rationalism, individualism
5.development, change, mobility, market relations, rationalism
85. System-forming qualities of society:
1.integrity
2.decentralization
3. historicity
4.Self-regulation
5.integrity, dynamism, self-regulation
86. Criterion of the Marxist typology of societies:
1.production and management levels
2.level of management and property differentiation
3.Mode of production and form of ownership
4.production and social differentiation
5.the life of society is based on religious teachings
87. Transition from pre-industrial to industrial society through complex reforms:
1.industrial revolution
2.scientific revolution
3. modernization
4.technical revolution
5.information revolution
88. The industrial society is characterized by the division:
1.class
2. estate
3.professional
4.confessional
5.caste
89. The concept, which is based on the communist principles of the organization of society:
1.concept of convergence
2.Utopian socialism
3.post-industrial society
4.Equal Opportunity Societies
5.theory of "industrial society" by W. Rostow
90. The social sphere of the life of society:
1.the relationship between economic culture and consciousness
2.commodity-money relations
3.market relations
4.the relationship between abilities and capabilities
5.the ratio between social groups
91. The function of the social system, introduced by T. Parsons:
1.adaptation, goal achievement, integration, maintenance of interaction patterns in the system
2.adaptation, integration, autonomy
3.economics, politics, kinship and culture
4.socialization, adaptation, goal setting
5.dysfunction
92. At the heart of the difference between closed and open societies is the following factor:
1.social control and individual freedom
2.exchange of volitional impulses
3.orderness of the actions of the individual
4. situational
5.links of social interactions
1.A. Saint-Simon
3.D. Inkels
4. D. Bernheim
5. E. Durkheim
94. In the structure of sociology, two levels of knowledge of society are distinguished:
1.microsociology and macrosociology
2. gnoseology and ontology
3.fundamental sociology and applied
4.combined and structural
5.selective and direct
95. Society in the social sense:
world community of peoples
world capitalist system
civilized countries
United Nations (UN)
96. Traditional society:
1.pre-industrial European society with a slower pace of development
2.socialist society
3.a society in which Christian traditions are strong
4.medieval society
5.the consumer society
97. A society characterized by rational knowledge of the world, criticism and individualism:
1.social and economic formation
2.closed
3.open
4.information
5.technotronic
98. A typical status corresponds to a closed society:
1. main
2.attributed
4.attainable
5. role-playing
99. A society characterized by magical thinking, dogmatism and collectivism:
1.consumption
2.traditional
3.closed
4.complicated
5.primitive
100. "Post-industrial society" is a society:
2. European late XIX - early XX centuries.
3.modern western
4. oriental pattern
5.socialist
Topic 5. Social processes, social changes and social institutions as basic elements of society
101. The institution that gives the ability to replenish the population:
2.church
5.property
102. Main functions social institutions:
satisfy social needs, give stability to society
provide society with dynamism, mobility, variability
issue diplomas to graduates
manage the worldview
carry out the function of social exchange
103. The process and result of the emergence of a social institution in society is:
institutionalization
dysfunction
stabilization
streamlining
stagnation
104. The main advantages of a social institution:
predictability, reliability, adjustability
unpredictability, sporadicity
possibility of experiment
randomness, spontaneity
randomness, instability
105. The high efficiency of social institutions is promoted by:
high level of personal responsibility
division of labor and professionalism
material interest
moral interest
106. T. Parsons called the process by which the elements of culture are assimilated:
1.identification
2.social learning
3.imitation
4.socialization
5.Deviation
107. The mechanism by which society regulates the behavior of individuals and supports social order:
socialization
education
social control
compulsion
108. The many connections that arise in the process of economic, social, political and cultural life is a relationship:
national
production
public
geopolitical
interpersonal
109. Activities in the field of relations between large social groups, especially classes, as well as nations and states:
control
politics
diplomacy
110. A stable set of formal and informal rules, attitudes that form social system of society:
social community
social organization
social institution
social structure
social politics
111. Arbitrary agreement of people for the most effective activity:
social institution
social organization
social group
social interest
social politics
112. The concept uniting the following categories: division of labor, family, property, army, marriage, education:
social structure
social relations
social institutions
social organization
social mobility
113. The stability of ties in a community, one way or another, depends on:
1.the effect that community gives an individual
2.material interest
3. coercion
4.habits
5.the aspirations of a person to become a member of society
114. The process, as a result of which a person loses contact with his class, morally falls, drops out of the system of social production:
alienation from the means of production
declassing process
lumpenization process
pauperization
marginalization
115. There are mainly two types of social ties:
contacts
interactions and social roles
social roles and social conflicts
contacts and social interactions
conflicts and social groups
116. Marginalization resulting from the economic crisis:
1.natural
2.prescribed
3.Extreme
4.planned
5.spontaneous
117. The area of life of human society, in which the social state policy through the distribution of benefits:
the culture
youth policy
social sphere
gerontology
118. Social movements leading to radical change:
1.reformative
2.Utopian
3.reactive
4. liberal
5.revolutionary
119. The social law of the evolution of society includes:
1.continuity
2.cultural diversity
3.disaster
4.the unequal speed of development of peoples
5.revolution
120. Social progress as interpreted by G. Spencer:
the result of the emergence and resolution of social contradictions
the degree of development of the productive forces
reducing the degree of dependence of the individual on society
compromise
set of acting individuals
121. From the point of view of M. Weber, the basis of the "spirit of capitalism", which determined the development civilized capitalism:
ascetic ethics of the Protestant denomination
features of the Catholic religion
extreme individualism, focus on success
"Achievement complex" inherent in "Western man"
pragmatism
122. Social process of growth of cities, urban population, increasing their role in development society:
centralization
urbanization
migration
differentiation
population
123. Environmental disaster:
1.political coup
2.industrial revolution
3. irreversible change in natural complexes
4.cultural revolution
5.scientific and technological revolution
124. The concept of progress reflects:
1.not the law, but the hope of history
2. the invention of the educators
3.the increasing solidarity of all members of society
4. gradual, but steady movement for the better, higher (in all spheres of human life and society)
5.the ideal that is constantly being approached, but never achieved
125. Generalized criteria of social progress:
1.the degree of mastery of society by the elemental forces of nature
2.level and structure of consumption of material goods and services
3.acceleration of social development
4.Opportunities and prospects for the development of the productive forces of society
5.expansion of conditions and opportunities for freedom and creativity of people
Topic 6. Social structure of society
126. Social group with fixed customs and inherited rights and obligations:
2.state
4.nomenclature
127. Social group:
1.any set of interacting individuals
2.social standard by which an individual evaluates himself and others
3.any collective with which the individual relates his behavior or the future
4.individuals selected on the basis of the principle of the greatest similarity with the group that is the object of a sociological experiment
5.the movement of individuals between different levels of the social hierarchy
128. Groups associated with other positions by the system of rights and obligations of the individual:
1.social role
2.social status
3.status dialing
4.personal status
5.assigned status
129. Interaction of individuals based on statuses and roles:
1.waiting
2. prescription
3.prediction
4.regularity
5.accident
130. Large group people, formed on the basis of common interests in the presence a certain situation:
1.public
3.social community
5.youth
131. The theory that develops the problems of functioning in society of various social groups:
1.the middle level theory
2.theory of sociocultural dynamics
3.theory of group dynamics
4.theory of social solidarity
5. theory of "mirror - I"
132. A spontaneously formed system of social ties, interactions, norms of interpersonal and intergroup communication is:
social institution
civilization
informal organization
formal organization
5.social structure
133. Small social group:
1.believers
2.the democrats
4.sports team
5.retirees
134. Initial number for small group:
1.two people
2.five people
3.Ten people
4.fifteen people
5.20 people
135. The trend of development of social structures of modern Western societies:
1.decrease in the growth of the "middle class"
2.decrease in the share of farmers
3.Lack of highly skilled knowledge workers
4. growth of social mobility
5.presence of an underclass
136. The main class of modern Kazakhstani society:
2.farmers
3.middle class
4.upper class
5.underclass
137. The signs of the class, allocated in Marxism:
1.the nature of entertainment and leisure
2.relation to the means of production
3.cultural needs and interests
4.religion
5.the nature and degree of education
1.religious
2. sex and age
3.political
4.professional
5.ethnic
139. Social differentiation:
1.division of society into groups occupying different positions
2.transformation of the middle class into the most numerous social group
3.the loss of stability by society
4.Lack of benefits and privileges for certain social groups
5. strengthening the position of the financial oligarchy
140. People with similar functions, statuses, social roles, cultural needs, come together in common:
1. ethnic
2.cultural
3.economic
4.social
5.political
141. Social group:
1.any collective, real or imagined, with which the individual relates his behavior or the future
2.a certain social standard by which the individual evaluates himself and others
3.people who have common interests, values and norms of behavior
4.Aspirants to the highest work achievements
5. careerists
142. Normally regulated behavior based on generally accepted norms, a component of social structure of society:
social status
marginal status
social role
social behavior
social control
143. The penitentiary subculture is formed by:
1.marginal groups
2.tweens
3.students of technical universities
4.Russian-speaking in the Baltic countries
5.inmates in jail
144. Margins:
1.social groups that occupy an intermediate position between stable communities
2. descended to the "bottom" of society, people from different classes
3.the ruined bourgeois
4.low-paid proletariat
5.adventurers
145. A sure sign of marginality:
1.level of education
2.qualification
3.political status
4.cultural level
5.incomplete transfer of social groups
146. Marginalized segments of the population:
1.military personnel
2.emigrants
3.students
4.housewives
5.retirees
147. The state of groups of people set social development on the edge of two cultures:
1.marginality
2.modality
3.conflictness
4. hostility
5.conformity
148. Signs of a formal social organization:
1.no goal
2.distribution of relations of power and subordination
3. normative regulation of behavior
4.forming rules for regulating relations
5.presence of a goal, formalization of functions and normative regulation of relations, behavior
149. Components of the socio-territorial structure of society:
2.transport communications
4.urbanization
5. territorial-subject aggregate and settlement community
150. A group in which the individual is not really included, but relates himself as a standard:
3.conditional
4.reference
5.laboratory
Topic 7. Problems of social inequality and the theory of social stratification
151. A group of people whose membership is inherited:
1.state
3.profession
4.religion
5.nationality
152. Social equality:
1.equality of natural inclinations and inclinations of people
2.lack of privileges for certain groups
3.distribution of material wealth among all equally
4.Equality of all before the law
5.the ability to predict the future
1.P.Sorokin
3. Aristotle
4. M. Weber
5. K. Marx
154. Historical types stratification:
1.slavery
3.Estates
4.slavery, castes, estates
155. Universal dimension of inequality:
156. Social inequality manifests itself in:
1.differences between people according to natural abilities and inclinations
2.differences between people by occupation
3.the lack of distribution of material wealth equally
4.presence of privileges for certain groups
5.confessional differences
157. Causes of social inequality from a Marxist point of view:
1.rooted in property relations
2.Due to natural differences between people
3.Caused by differences in education and culture
4.are a consequence of imperfect laws
5.this is a historical pattern
158. Open stratification system:
1.caste
2. estate
3.class
4.professional
5.property
159. Stratification, which is fundamental in Soviet society:
1. estate
2.class
3.caste
4.statacratic
5.social and professional
160. Geometric figure characterizing the profile of social stratification of modern society:
1.square
2.isosceles triangle
161. A new element of the stratification system of Kazakhstani society:
1.researchers
2.engineering workers
3. collective farmers
4.intellectuals
5. entrepreneurs
162. The criterion for the selection of the highest class:
1.privileged lifestyle
2.the largest sizes of property and income
3.the widest scope of political rights
4.the highest skill level
5.the ability to influence social change
163. Social stratification is measured:
1.cultural
2. public speaking skills
4.Education
5.the way of life
164. The main criterion for social stratification:
2.inequality
3. prestige
4.education
5.nationality
165. The "Underclass" in Sociology:
1.upper class
2.the middle class
3.lower class
4.the middle middle class
5.upper middle class
166. The type of stratification that characterizes an open society:
3.Estates
4.general structure
5.slavery
167. Historical first form of social stratification:
2.states
3.slavery
168. Strat:
1.disposition
5.orientation
169. Estates are based on:
1.professional affiliation
2.religions
3.capital
4.Kinship
5.Land ownership
170. The classical caste system existed in:
171. Property as a criterion of inequality loses its significance in:
1.industrial society
2.pre-industrial society
3.post-industrial society
4.Agrarian society
5. horticultural society
172. Signs of stratification according to T. Parsons:
1.intelligence
2.property
3.professional activity
4. labor activity
5. characteristics that humans have from birth and related to the performance of the role
Social stratification criteria according to P. Sorokin
4.profession
5.income level, political status, professional roles
174. The most important criterion social stratification:
1.Kinship ties
2.gender, education
3. age, profession
4.nationality
5.education, income, power, profession
175. M. Weber on social inequality:
1.inequality is determined by inadequate opportunities for earning income, power, status position
2.it is caused by economic relations
3.it is the natural state of society
4.born by power relationships
5.place of residence determines inequality
Topic 8. Social mobility and its main trends
176. The most correct definition of classes:
1. "a set of agents with a similar position in the social space" (P. Bourdieu)
2. "a set of status groups holding similar market positions and having similar life chances" (M. Weber)
3. "a class is determined by its place in the social division of labor" (N. Pulantsas)
4. "conflict groups that arise as a result of the differentiated distribution of authority" (R. Dahrendorf)
5. "method of collective action" (F. Parkin)
177. The totality of social movements of people in society:
1.stratification
2.mobility
3.socialization
4.structure
5.differentiation
178. The demotion of an officer relates to mobility:
1.vertical
2.horizontal
3.Geographic
4.organized
5.spontaneous
179. An institution serving as the main channel for social mobility:
2.church
5.mass media
180. The definition of classes in an antagonistic relationship belongs to:
1.M. Weber
2. Confucius
3. To K. Marx
4. Plato
5. Aristotle
181. The middle class in modern Western society is:
182. The growth of the middle class taking place today in many countries:
1.leads to stagnation, hinders social mobility
2.Promotes the qualifications of workers
3.increases the sustainability and stability of society
4.increases social tension
5.increases the position of the upper strata of society
183. The middle class includes:
1.the unemployed
2.unskilled workers
3.owners of large industrial corporations
4. materially secured layers of the intelligentsia
5.the CEOs of nationwide corporations
184. The main sign of class affiliation in Marxist theory:
1.the nature of the activity
2.the amount of income received
3.form of income received
4.relation to ownership of the means of production
185. Social mobility:
1.Equality of opportunity for all members of society
2.the ability to travel within the country and abroad
3.fast social change
4.the transition of people from one social group to another
5.Moving from one age to another
186. Raising the status of an individual within a social group - example:
1.vertical social mobility
2. horizontal social mobility
3.Changing by an individual of the territory of residence or work
4.not related to social mobility
5.Moving from one place to another
187. Most Full description channels of vertical mobility gave:
1.T. Parsons
2. M. Weber
3. E. Durkheim
4.P.Sorokin
5. K. Marx
188. Vertical mobility:
1.transition from one social group to another located at the same level
2.transition from one stratum to another
3.move from one place to another
4.state-driven movement
5.spontaneous displacement
189. Horizontal mobility means moving:
1.from one social group to another located at the same level
2.from one country to another
3.from one place to another
4.state-run
5.spontaneous displacement
190. Moving from an Orthodox to a Catholic group - mobility:
1.vertical
2.horizontal
3.status
4.Geographic
5.organized
191. Downward social mobility:
1.moving from military service to civil
2.move from the city to the countryside
3.transition from a managerial position to a private
4.transition from a state-owned enterprise to a private one
5.the transition from one religion to another
192.The term "social mobility" was introduced into sociology in 1927:
B. Barber
A. Turin
P. Sorokin
L. Warner
R. Darendorf
193. A society in which movement from one stratum to another is not officially restricted:
1.patriarchal
2.slave
3.closed
4.open
5.total
194. Advancement to positions with higher prestige, income and power:
1.Nomenclature career
2.social mobility
3.career and anti-career
4.social contract
5.group dynamics
195. Intergenerational mobility implies:
1.children reach a higher social position or descend to a lower step than their parents
2. the same individual changes social positions several times throughout life
3.individuals, social groups move from one stratum to another
4.the individual or social group moves from one social position to another at the same level
5.the transition from one belief to another
196. The main types of social mobility:
1.career, education, position
2.intergenerational and intragenerational
3.Vertical and horizontal
4.integration
5.professional
197. Horizontal mobility:
1.increase in social status
2.decrease in social status
3.transition to another social group at the same level
4.the state of marginality
5.spatial displacement
198. Channels of vertical mobility:
2.profession
4.educational system, family, business, politics, army
5.religion
199. Electoral defeat is a type of social mobility:
1.horizontal, group
2.vertical, ascending, group
3.horizontal, individual
4.vertical, descending, group
5.vertical, descending, individual
200. Accepting another citizenship - an example of mobility:
1.horizontal
2.vertical
3.intergenerational
4. intrageneral
5.Geographic
Topic 9. Personality as a social system
201. The need to fulfill the requirements of incompatible roles is called:
role conflict
role behavior
marginal status
transient state
role expectation
202. A situation in which social and personal status come into conflict with each other and the individual is forced to prefer one over the other:
frustration
status conflict
marginal status
social role
adaptation
203. The position of the individual in accordance with his personal qualities:
1.social role
2.social status
3.status dialing
4.personal status
5.prescribed status
204. The status with which a person is identified in society:
1.personal status
2.main status
3.social status
4.status dialing
5.Achieved status
205. The doctrine of social character was developed by:
1.R. Dahrendorf
2.G. Marcuse
3. E. Fromm
4. J. Moreno
5. S. Freud
206. Typology "traditionally-oriented personality", "inside-oriented personality" and the "externally oriented personality" belongs to:
1.D. Riesman
2.T. Shibutani
3.V. Yadovu
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P. Sorokin's concept of social stratification
Introduction
sociology sorokin stratification
Human society at all stages of its development was characterized by inequality. Sociologists call structured inequalities between different groups of people stratification.
For a more precise definition of this concept, one can quote the words of Pitirim Sorokin: “Social stratification is the differentiation of a given set of people (population) into classes in a hierarchical rank. It finds expression in the existence of higher and lower strata. Its basis and essence lies in the uneven distribution of rights and privileges, responsibilities and duties, the presence and absence of social values, power and influence among members of a particular community. The specific forms of social stratification are varied and numerous. However, all their diversity can be reduced to three main forms: economic, political and professional stratification. As a rule, they are all closely intertwined.
"Social stratification is a constant characteristic of any organized society."
“Social stratification begins with Weber's distinction between more traditional societies based on status (for example, societies based on such prescribed categories as estates and castes, slavery, as a result of which inequality is sanctioned by law) and polarized, but more diffuse societies with basically classes (which is typical for the modern West), where personal achievements play a big role, where economic differentiation is of paramount importance and is more impersonal in nature. "
The study of social stratification has a long history dating back to the middle of the 19th century. (works of Karl Marx and John Stuart Mill), including a significant contribution of researchers of the early twentieth century. - from V. Pareto (who proposed the theory of “circulation of elites”) to P. Sorokin.
Pitirim Alexandrovich Sorokin (1889-1968), one of the largest representatives of social thought of the 20th century, was one of the founders of the theory of social stratification of society. Social stratification, according to the views of P.A. Sorokin is a constant characteristic of any organized society. Changing in form, social stratification existed, as this prominent sociologist believed, in all societies that proclaimed the equality of people. Feudalism and oligarchy, according to his views, continue to exist in science and art, politics and management, among criminals and in democracies - everywhere.
For Sorokin, as for many researchers before and after him, the ahistorical dynamism of social stratification is obvious. The outline and height of economic, political or professional stratification are timeless characteristics and normative features of stratification. Their temporary fluctuations do not carry a unidirectional movement either in the direction of increasing social distance, or in the direction of reducing it.
Thus, P.A. Sorokin is one of the founders of the modern sociological theory of social stratification, which is why a thorough analysis of the main provisions of his theory in the light of his scientific views and historical reality, to which he was a participant, is so important.
1. BriefbiographyP.Sorokin
Sorokin Pitirim Alexandrovich (1889-1968) - American sociologist and culturologist. Born on January 23 (February 4), 1889 in the village of Turya, Yarensky district, Vologda province of the Russian Empire (Komi Territory), in the family of a rural craftsman. He graduated from the law faculty of St. Petersburg University (1914), and remained at the university to prepare for a professorship (from January 1917 - assistant professor). In 1906-1918, a member of the Socialist Revolutionary Party (SR), before the February Revolution he participated in SR agitation and was arrested. After the February Revolution, a deputy of the 1st All-Russian Congress of Peasant Deputies, secretary (together with a friend of his youth ND Kondratyev) of the head of the Provisional Government A.F. Kerensky, member of the Pre-parliament. After the October Revolution in 1917-1918 participates in anti-Bolshevik organizations; leads agitation against the new government, is arrested. At the end of 1918, he retired from political activity. In 1919 he became one of the founders of the Department of Sociology at St. Petersburg University, professor of sociology at the Agricultural Academy and the Institute of National Economy. In 1920, together with I.P. Pavlov organized the Society for Objective Research of Human Behavior. In 1921 he worked at the Institute of the Brain, at the Historical and Sociological Institutes. In 1922 he was expelled from Soviet Russia. In 1923 he worked at the Russian University in Prague. In 1924 he moved to the USA. In 1924-1930 he was a professor at the University of Minnesota, from 1930 until the end of his life - a professor at Harvard University, where in 1930 he organized the Department of Sociology, and in 1931 - the Faculty of Sociology.
The main works of P.A. Sorokin: "Remnants of animism among the Zyryans" (1910), "Old marriage: (polyandry and polygamy)" (1913), "Crime and its causes" (1913), "Suicide as a social phenomenon" (1913), "Symbols in social life "," Crime and punishment, feat and reward "(1913)," Social analytics and social mechanics "(1919)," System of sociology "(1920)," Sociology of the revolution "(1925)," Social mobility "(1927 ), "Social and cultural dynamics" (1937-1941), "Society, culture and personality: their structure and dynamics; system of general sociology "(1947)," Restoration of Humanity "(1948)," Altruistic Love "(1950)," Social Philosophies in the Age of Crisis "(1950)," The Meaning of Our Crisis "(1951)," Ways and Power of Love " (1954), “Integralism is my philosophy” (1957), “Power and Morality” (1959), “Mutual Convergence of the United States and the USSR to a Mixed Sociocultural Type” (1960), “Long Road. Autobiography "(1963)," The main tendencies of our time "(1964)," Sociology yesterday, today and tomorrow "(1968).
Scientific interests of P.A. Sorokin covered a truly huge layer of problems in the study of society and culture.
According to P.A. Sorokin, attempts to radically destroy social differentiation led only to the belittling of social forms, to the quantitative and qualitative decomposition of sociality.
Sorokin viewed historical reality as a hierarchy of differently integrated cultural and social systems. Sorokin's idealistic concept is based on the idea of the priority of a superorganic system of values, meanings, “pure cultural systems”, which are carried by individuals and institutions. Historical process, according to Sorokin, there is a fluctuation of the types of cultures, each of which is a specific integrity and is based on several main philosophical premises (the idea of the nature of reality, methods of its cognition).
Sorokin criticized the dominant empirical trend in the United States and developed the doctrine of "integral" sociology, covering all sociological aspects of a widely understood culture. The social reality was considered by P.A. Sorokin in the spirit of social realism, which postulated the existence of a super-individual sociocultural reality, irreducible to material reality and endowed with a system of meanings. Characterized by an infinite variety that surpasses any individual manifestation of it, sociocultural reality embraces the truths of feelings, rational intelligence and super-rational intuition.
All these methods of cognition should be used in a systematic study of sociocultural phenomena, however, Sorokin considered the intuition of a highly gifted person to be the highest method of cognition, with the help of which, in his opinion, all great discoveries were made. Sorokin distinguished systems of sociocultural phenomena of many levels. The highest of them is formed by sociocultural systems, the scope of which extends to many societies (supersystems).
Sorokin distinguishes three main types of culture: sensual - direct sensory perception of reality prevails in it; ideational, in which rational thinking prevails; idealistic - the intuitive method of cognition prevails here.
2. The main forms of stratification and the relationship between them
The specific incarnations of social stratification are numerous. However, all their diversity can be reduced to three main forms: economic, political and professional stratification. As a rule, they are all closely intertwined. People who belong to the highest stratum in one respect usually belong to the same stratum in other respects, and vice versa. Representatives of the highest economic strata simultaneously belong to the highest political and professional strata. The have-nots, as a rule, are deprived of civil rights and are in the lower strata of the professional hierarchy. This is general rule although there are quite a few exceptions. So, for example, the richest are not always at the top of the political or professional pyramid, and also not in all cases the poor occupy the lowest places in the political and professional hierarchy. This means that the interdependence of the three forms of social stratification is far from perfect, because the different layers of each of the forms do not completely coincide with each other. Rather, they coincide with each other, but only partially, that is, to a certain extent. This fact does not allow us to analyze all three main forms of social stratification together. For greater pedantry, it is necessary to analyze each of the forms separately.
Economic stratification
Speaking about the economic status of a certain group, two main types of fluctuations should be distinguished. The first refers to the economic decline or rise of a group; the second - to the growth or reduction of economic stratification within the group itself. The first phenomenon is expressed in the economic enrichment or impoverishment of social groups as a whole; the second is expressed in a change in the economic profile of a group or in an increase or decrease in the height, so to speak, of the steepness of the economic pyramid. Accordingly, there are the following two types of fluctuations in the economic status of a society:
1. Fluctuation of the economic status of the group as a whole:
a) an increase in economic well-being;
b) a decrease in the latter.
2. Fluctuations in the height and profile of economic stratification within society:
a) the rise of the economic pyramid;
b) flattening of the economic pyramid.
The hypotheses of constant height and profile of economic stratification and its growth in the 19th century have not been confirmed. The most correct is the hypothesis of fluctuations in economic stratification from group to group, and within the same group - from one period of time to another. In other words, there are cycles in which the rise in economic inequality is replaced by its weakening. In these fluctuations, some periodicity is possible, but for various reasons its existence has not yet been proven by anyone. Except for the early stages of economic evolution, marked by increased economic stratification, there is no constant direction in the fluctuations in the height and shape of economic stratification. No strong tendency towards decreasing economic inequality was found; there are no serious grounds for admitting the existence of the opposite trend. Under normal social conditions, the economic cone of a developed society fluctuates within certain limits. Its shape is relatively constant. In extreme circumstances, these limits can be violated and the economic stratification profile can become either very flat or very convex and high. In both cases, this situation is short-lived. And if the "economically flat" society does not perish, then the "flatness" is quickly replaced by the strengthening of economic stratification. If economic inequality becomes too strong and reaches a point of overextension, then the top of society is destined to collapse or be overthrown.
Thus, in any society, at any time, there is a struggle between the forces of stratification and the forces of equalization. The former work constantly and steadily, the latter - spontaneously, impulsively, using violent methods.
Political stratification
So, as already noted, the universality and constancy of political stratification does not at all mean that it has always and everywhere been identical. Now the following problems should be discussed: a) does the profile and height of political stratification change from group to group, from one period of time to another; b) whether there are established limits for these fluctuations; c) the frequency of fluctuations; d) whether there is an eternally constant direction of these changes. In addressing all these issues, we must be extremely careful not to fall under the spell of eloquent eloquence. The problem is very complex. And we must approach it gradually, step by step. Changes in the upper part of political stratification. Let's simplify the situation: for a start, let's take only the upper part of the political pyramid, consisting of free members of society. Let's ignore for a while all those layers that are below this level (servants, slaves, serfs, etc.). At the same time we will not consider: By whom? How? For how long? For what reasons? Various layers of the political pyramid are involved. Now the subject of our interest is the height and profile of a political building inhabited by free members of society: is there a constant tendency in its changes to “align” (that is, to reduce the height and relief of the pyramid) or to “rise”? The conventional wisdom is in favor of the “alignment” trend. People tend to take it for granted that there is an iron tendency in history towards political equality and the destruction of political "feudalism" and hierarchy. This judgment is also typical of the present moment. As G. Wallace rightly noted, “the political credo of the mass of people is not the result of reflections tested by experience, but a set of unconscious or semi-conscious assumptions put forward out of habit. What is closer to reason is closer to the past, and how a stronger impulse allows you to quickly come to a conclusion. " As for the height of the top of the political pyramid, my arguments are as follows. In primitive tribes and at the early stages of the development of civilization, political stratification was insignificant and imperceptible. Several leaders, a layer of influential elders - and, perhaps, everything that was located above the layer of the rest of the free population. The political form of such a social organism was somewhat, only remotely, reminiscent of a sloping and low pyramid. Rather, it approached a rectangular parallelepiped with a barely protruding elevation at the top. With the development and growth of social relations, in the process of unification of the originally independent tribes, in the process of natural demographic growth of the population, political stratification intensified, and the number of different ranks increased rather than decreased. The political cone began to grow, but did not level out in any way. The same can be said about the earliest stages of development of modern European peoples, about ancient Greek and Roman societies. Regardless of the further political evolution of all these societies, it seems obvious that their political hierarchy will never become as flat as it was on early stages development of civilization. If this is the case, then it would be impossible to admit that there is a constant tendency towards political "equalization" in the history of political stratification. The second argument boils down to the fact that, whether we take the history of Ancient Egypt, Greece, Rome, China, or modern European societies, it does not show that over time the pyramid of the political hierarchy becomes lower and the political cone flatter. In the history of Rome in the period of the republic, instead of several ranks of the archaic period, we see the highest pyramid of different ranks and titles, overlapping each other even according to the degree of privilege. In our time, something similar is observed. Specialists in constitutional law correctly point out that the president of the United States clearly has more political rights than the European constitutional monarch. The execution of orders given by high officials to their subordinates, generals to lower military ranks, is as categorical and obligatory as in any non-democratic country. Compliance with the orders of a senior officer in the American army is as imperative as in any other army. There are differences in recruiting methods, but this does not mean that the political edifice of modern democracies is flat or less stratified than the political edifice of many non-democracies. Thus, with regard to the political hierarchy among citizens, there is no tendency in political evolution to lower or flatten the cone. Despite various methods of recruiting members to the upper strata in modern democracies, the political cone is now as high and stratified as it has been at any other time, and certainly higher than in many less developed societies. But this statement is in no way supported by anything. “All that we see is 'disorderly', undirected, 'blind' fluctuations, leading neither to an increase nor to a weakening of political stratification ...
Consequences of political stratification:
1. The height of the profile of political stratification varies from country to country, from one time period to another.
2. In these changes, there is no constant tendency neither towards leveling nor towards the rise of stratification.
3. There is no constant tendency of transition from monarchy to republic, from autocracy to democracy, from rule of minority to rule of majority, from absence of government interference in the life of society to comprehensive state control. There are also no reverse tendencies.
4. Among the multitude of social forces that contribute to political stratification, an increase in the size of the political organism and the heterogeneity of the composition of the population play an important role.
5. The profile of political stratification is more mobile, and it fluctuates within wider limits, more often and more impulsively than the profile of economic stratification.
6. In any society, there is a constant struggle between the forces of political alignment and the forces of stratification. Sometimes some forces win, sometimes others take over. When the oscillation of the profile in one of the directions becomes too strong and abrupt, the opposite forces in different ways increase their pressure and bring the stratification profile to the equilibrium point.
Professional stratification
Includes professional and interprofessional stratification. The existence of professional stratification is established from two main groups of facts. Obviously, certain classes of professions have always formed the upper social strata, while other professional groups have always been at the bottom of the social cone. The most important professional classes are not located horizontally, that is, at the same social level, but, so to speak, overlap. Secondly, the phenomenon of professional stratification is also found within each professional sphere. Whether we take the field of agriculture, or industry, trade or, management or any other professions, people employed in these areas are stratified into many ranks and levels: from the upper ranks, which exercise control, to the lower ones, which they control and who are subordinate to their own in the hierarchy. "Directors", "authorities", "managers", "chiefs", etc. Professional stratification, therefore, manifests itself in these two main forms: 1) in the form of a hierarchy of major professional groups (interprofessional stratification) and 2) in the form of stratification within each professional class (professional stratification).
It should be noted that whatever the various temporal foundations of interprofessional stratification in different societies may be, alongside these ever-changing foundations there are constant and universal foundations. Two conditions, at least, have always been fundamental: 1) the importance of the occupation (profession) for the survival and functioning of the group as a whole, 2) the level of intelligence necessary for the successful performance of professional duties.
The occupational groups carrying out the basic functions of social organization and control are placed at the center of the “engine of society”. The bad behavior of a soldier may not greatly affect the entire army, the unscrupulous work of one worker has little effect on others, but the actions of an army commander or group leader automatically affect the entire army or group whose actions he controls. Moreover, being at the controlling point of the "social engine", if only because of such an objectively influential position, the corresponding social groups ensure for themselves the maximum privileges and power in society. This alone explains the relationship between the social significance of a profession and its place in the hierarchy of professional groups. The successful fulfillment of social and professional functions of organization and control, naturally, requires a higher level of intelligence than for any physical work of a routine nature. Accordingly, these two conditions turn out to be closely interrelated: the performance of the functions of organization and control requires a high level of intelligence, and a high level of intelligence is manifested in the achievements (directly or indirectly) associated with the organization and control of the group.
Thus, it can be said that in any given society, a more professional work consists in the implementation of the functions of organization and control and in a higher level of intelligence necessary for its implementation, in a greater privilege of the group and in a higher rank that it occupies in the interprofessional hierarchy. and vice versa. Four amendments should be added to this rule. First, the general rule does not exclude the possibility of superimposing the upper strata of the lower professional class with the lower strata of the next, higher class. Secondly, the general rule does not apply to periods of disintegration of society. At such moments in history, the relationship can be broken. Such periods usually lead to a coup, after which, if the group does not disappear, the former ratio is quickly restored. Exceptions, however, do not invalidate the rule. Third, the general rule does not exclude deviations. Fourth, since the concrete historical character of societies is different and their conditions change over time, it is quite natural that the specific content of professional occupations changes depending on a particular general situation.
3. Social stratification systems
Regardless of the forms that social stratification takes, its existence is universal. There are four main systems of social stratification: slavery, castes, clans and classes. Let's consider each of these types of systems separately.
Slavery is an economic, social and legal form of enslavement of people, bordering on complete lack of rights and extreme inequality.
The main causes of slavery
An inherent feature of slavery is the possession of some people by others. Both the ancient Romans and the ancient Africans had slaves. In ancient Greece, slaves were engaged in manual labor, which gave free citizens the opportunity to express themselves in politics and the arts. Slavery was the least typical for nomadic peoples, especially hunters and gatherers, and it was most widespread in agrarian societies.
There are usually three reasons for slavery. First, a promissory note, when a person who was unable to pay debts fell into slavery to his creditor. Secondly, violation of laws, when the execution of a murderer or robber was replaced by slavery, i.e. the culprit was handed over to the injured family as compensation for the grief or damage caused. Thirdly, war, raids, conquest, when one group of people conquered another and the victors used some of the captives as slaves.
Basic conditions of slavery
The conditions of slavery and slavery varied significantly in different regions the world. In some countries, slavery was a temporary condition of a person: after working for his master for the allotted time, the slave became free and had the right to return to his homeland. Thus, the Israelites freed their slaves in the jubilee year, every 50 years. Slaves in ancient Rome tended to buy freedom; in order to collect the amount necessary for the ransom, they made a deal with their master and sold their services to other people (this is exactly what some educated Greeks who fell into slavery to the Romans did). However, in many cases, slavery was for life; in particular, criminals sentenced to life work were turned into slaves and worked in Roman galleys as rowers until their death.
The status of a slave was not always inherited. In ancient Mexico, the children of slaves were always free people. But in most countries, the children of slaves also automatically became slaves, although in some cases the child of a slave who had served in a rich family all his life was adopted by this family, he received the surname of his masters and could become one of the heirs along with the other children of the masters. As a rule, slaves had neither property nor power. However, for example, in ancient Rome, slaves had the opportunity to accumulate some kind of property and even achieve a high position in society.
Slavery in the New World has its origins in the contractual service of Europeans. This service in the New World was a cross between an employee contract and slavery.
Many Europeans who decided to start a new life in the American colonies were unable to pay for the ticket. The captains of ships sailing to America agreed to carry such passengers on credit, provided that after they arrived at the site, someone would be found to pay their debt to the captain. Thus, the poor got the opportunity to get to the American colonies, the captain received payment for their transportation, and the wealthy colonists received free servants for a certain period.
General characteristics of slavery
Although the practice of slavery was different in different regions and in different eras, regardless of whether slavery was the result of unpaid debt, punishment, war captivity, or racial prejudice; whether it was for life or temporary; hereditary or not, the slave was still the property of another person, and the system of laws fixed the status of a slave. Slavery served as the main distinction between people, clearly indicating which person is free (and according to the law receives certain privileges), and which is a slave (having no privileges).
There are two forms of slavery:
patriarchal slavery - the slave had all the rights of a younger member of the family: he lived in the same house with the owners, participated in public life, married free; it was forbidden to kill him;
classical slavery - the slave was finally enslaved; he lived in a separate room, did not participate in anything, did not marry and did not have a family, he was considered the property of the owner.
Slavery is the only form of social relations in history when one person acts as the property of another, and when the lower stratum is deprived of all rights and freedoms.
A caste is a social group (stratum), membership in which a person owes exclusively to his birth. The achieved status is not able to change the place of the individual in this system. People who are born in a low-status group will always have that status no matter what they have personally achieved in life.
Societies that are characterized by this form of stratification strive to clearly preserve the boundaries between castes, therefore endogamy is practiced here - marriages within one's own group - and there is a ban on intergroup marriages. To prevent contacts between castes, such societies develop complex rules regarding ritual purity, according to which it is believed that communication with representatives of lower castes defiles the higher caste.
A clan is a clan or related group linked by economic and social ties.
The clan system is typical of agrarian societies. In such a system, each individual is associated with an extensive social network of relatives - a clan. A clan is something like a very ramified family and has similar features: if a clan has a high status, an individual belonging to this clan has the same status; all funds belonging to the clan, poor or rich, equally belong to each member of the clan; loyalty to the clan is a lifelong responsibility of each clan member.
Clans also resemble castes: belonging to a clan is determined by birth and is lifelong. However, unlike castes, marriages between different clans are quite tolerated; they can even be used to create and strengthen alliances between clans, since the obligations imposed by marriage on the spouse's relatives can unite the members of the two clans. The processes of industrialization and urbanization transform clans into more volatile groups, eventually replacing clans with social classes.
A class is a large social group of people who do not own the means of production, occupying a certain place in the system of social division of labor and characterized by a specific way of earning income.
The main characteristic of this system of social stratification is the relative flexibility of its boundaries. The class system leaves room for social mobility, i.e. to move up or down the social ladder. Having the potential to improve one's social position, or class, is one of the main driving forces.
Conclusion
Social stratification has always been one of the main topics of scientific research by P. Sorokin. Today, the problems of social stratification are very relevant, since we have the opportunity every day to observe the processes of transition from one social stratum to another, changes in the social space of the individual. In Pitirim Sorokin, a person moves up the social ladder thanks to his talent and abilities. Unfortunately, everything is completely different in our life. The dominant role is occupied by money, today they are the main channel of vertical circulation.
Pitirim Sorokin's works on social stratification are important for the history of Russian sociology. He touched upon the most important problems of society, which no one had ever touched upon before him. Pitirim Sorokin is one of the most important Russian sociologists, whose works continue to be of great importance not only in Russian, but also abroad in modern sociology.
P. Sorokin belongs to that rare type of scientist, whose name becomes a symbol of his chosen science. In the West, he has long been recognized as one of the classics of the 20th century, on a par with O. Comte, G. Spencer, M. Weber.
Indeed, this Russian-American sociologist made an enormous contribution to the development of social thought and to the development of sociology as a science of society.
Social stratification expresses the social heterogeneity of society, the inequality that exists in it, the unequal social status of people and their groups. Social stratification is understood as the process and result of the differentiation of society into various social groups (strata, strata) that differ in their social status. The criteria for dividing society into strata can be very diverse, moreover, both objective and subjective. But most often today, one distinguishes profession, income, property, participation in power, education, prestige, self-esteem by a person of his social position. According to researchers, the middle class of a modern industrial society determines the stability of the social system and at the same time provides it with dynamism, since the middle class is, first of all, a highly productive and highly qualified, proactive and enterprising worker. Russia is classified as a mixed type of stratification. Our middle class is in its infancy, and this process is of key and broad significance for the formation of a new social structure.
List of used literature
1. Novikova S. "History of the development of sociology", Moscow-Voronezh, 2006
2. Sorokin P.A. "Social stratification and mobility", 2007
3. Sorokin P.A. “Man. Civilization. Society "(Series" Thinkers of the XX century "), M., 2004
4. Sorokin P.A. "Publicly available textbook of sociology", Science, 2007
5. Sorokin P.A. "System of Sociology", volume 2, M., 2006
6. Sociological dictionary / otv. ed. G.V. Osipov, L.N. Moskvichev; С69 account sec. O.E. Black Cheek. - M .: Norma, 2008 .-- 608 p.
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Federal Agency for Education of the Russian Federation
Ryazan State Radio Engineering University
in sociology on the topic:
"Social stratification of P. Sorokin"
Ryazan, 2010
Introduction
3. Systems of social stratification
Conclusion
List of used literature
Introduction
Human society at all stages of its development was characterized by inequality. Sociologists call structured inequalities between different groups of people stratification.
For a more precise definition of this concept, one can cite the words of Pitirim Sorokin: "Social stratification is the differentiation of a given set of people (population) into classes in a hierarchical rank. It finds expression in the existence of higher and lower strata. Its basis and essence is in the uneven distribution of rights and privileges, responsibilities and duties, the presence and absence of social values, power and influence among members of a particular community.Specific forms of social stratification are varied and numerous.However, all their diversity can be reduced to three main forms: economic, political and professional stratification. As a rule, they are all closely intertwined.
"Social stratification is a constant characteristic of any organized society."
"Social stratification begins with Weber's distinction between more traditional societies based on status (for example, societies based on such prescribed categories as estates and castes, slavery, as a result of which inequality is sanctioned by law) and polarized, but more diffuse societies with basically classes (which is typical for the modern West), where personal achievements play a large role, where economic differentiation is of paramount importance and is more impersonal in nature. "
The study of social stratification has a long history dating back to the middle of the 19th century. (works of Karl Marx and John Stuart Mill), including a significant contribution of researchers of the early twentieth century. - from V. Pareto (who proposed the theory of "circulation of elites") to P. Sorokin.
Pitirim Alexandrovich Sorokin (1889 - 1968), one of the largest representatives of social thought of the 20th century, was one of the founders of the theory of social stratification of society. Social stratification, according to the views of P.A. Sorokin is a constant characteristic of any organized society. Changing in form, social stratification existed, as this prominent sociologist believed, in all societies that proclaimed the equality of people. Feudalism and oligarchy, according to his views, continue to exist in science and art, politics and management, among criminals and in democracies - everywhere.
For Sorokin, as for many researchers before and after him, the ahistorical dynamism of social stratification is obvious. The outline and height of economic, political or professional stratification are timeless characteristics and normative features of stratification. Their temporary fluctuations do not carry a unidirectional movement either in the direction of increasing social distance, or in the direction of reducing it.
Thus, P.A. Sorokin is one of the founders of the modern sociological theory of social stratification, which is why a thorough analysis of the main provisions of his theory in the light of his scientific views and historical reality, to which he was a participant, is so important.
1. Brief biography of P. Sorokin
Sorokin Pitirim Alexandrovich (1889-1968) - American sociologist and culturologist. Born on January 23 (February 4), 1889 in the village of Turya, Yarensky district, Vologda province of the Russian Empire (Komi Territory), in the family of a rural craftsman. He graduated from the law faculty of St. Petersburg University (1914), and remained at the university to prepare for a professorship (from January 1917 - assistant professor). In 1906-1918, a member of the Socialist Revolutionary Party (SR), before the February Revolution he participated in SR agitation and was arrested. After the February Revolution, a deputy of the 1st All-Russian Congress of Peasant Deputies, secretary (together with a friend of his youth ND Kondratyev) of the head of the Provisional Government A.F. Kerensky, member of the Pre-parliament. After the October Revolution in 1917-1918 participates in anti-Bolshevik organizations; leads agitation against the new government, is arrested. At the end of 1918, he retired from political activity. In 1919 he became one of the founders of the Department of Sociology at St. Petersburg University, professor of sociology at the Agricultural Academy and the Institute of National Economy. In 1920, together with I.P. Pavlov organized the Society for Objective Research of Human Behavior. In 1921 he worked at the Institute of the Brain, at the Historical and Sociological Institutes. In 1922 he was expelled from Soviet Russia. In 1923 he worked at the Russian University in Prague. In 1924 he moved to the USA. In 1924-1930 he was a professor at the University of Minnesota, from 1930 until the end of his life - a professor at Harvard University, where in 1930 he organized the Department of Sociology, and in 1931 - the Faculty of Sociology.
The main works of P.A. Sorokin: "Remnants of animism among the Zyryans" (1910), "Old marriage: (polyandry and polygamy)" (1913), "Crime and its causes" (1913), "Suicide as a social phenomenon" (1913), "Symbols in social life "," Crime and punishment, feat and reward "(1913)," Social analytics and social mechanics "(1919)," System of sociology "(1920)," Sociology of revolution "(1925)," Social mobility "(1927 ), "Social and cultural dynamics" (1937-1941), "Society, culture and personality: their structure and dynamics; system of general sociology" (1947), "Restoration of humanity" (1948), "Altruistic love" (1950), "Social Philosophies in the Age of Crisis" (1950), "The Meaning of Our Crisis" (1951), "Ways and Power of Love" (1954), "Integralism is My Philosophy" (1957), "Power and Morality" (1959), " Mutual convergence of the United States and the USSR to a mixed sociocultural type "(1960)," Long road. Autobiography "(1963)," Main trends of our time "(1964)," Sociology yesterday, today and beyond tomorrow "(1968).
Scientific interests of P.A. Sorokin covered a truly huge layer of problems in the study of society and culture.
According to P.A. Sorokin, attempts to radically destroy social differentiation led only to the belittling of social forms, to the quantitative and qualitative decomposition of sociality.
Sorokin viewed historical reality as a hierarchy of differently integrated cultural and social systems. Sorokin's idealistic concept is based on the idea of the priority of a superorganic system of values, meanings, "pure cultural systems", which are carried by individuals and institutions. The historical process, according to Sorokin, is a fluctuation of the types of cultures, each of which is a specific integrity and is based on several main philosophical premises (an idea of the nature of reality, methods of its cognition).
Sorokin criticized the empirical trend prevailing in the United States and developed the doctrine of "integral" sociology, encompassing all the sociological aspects of a widely understood culture. The social reality was considered by P.A. Sorokin in the spirit of social realism, which postulated the existence of a super-individual sociocultural reality, irreducible to material reality and endowed with a system of meanings. Characterized by an infinite variety that surpasses any individual manifestation of it, sociocultural reality embraces the truths of feelings, rational intelligence and super-rational intuition.
All these methods of cognition should be used in a systematic study of sociocultural phenomena, however, Sorokin considered the intuition of a highly gifted person to be the highest method of cognition, with the help of which, in his opinion, all great discoveries were made. Sorokin distinguished systems of sociocultural phenomena of many levels. The highest of them is formed by sociocultural systems, the scope of which extends to many societies (supersystems).
Sorokin distinguishes three main types of culture: sensual - direct sensory perception of reality prevails in it; ideational, in which rational thinking prevails; idealistic - the intuitive method of cognition prevails here.
2. The main forms of stratification and the relationship between them
stratification inequality sorokin fluctuation
The specific incarnations of social stratification are numerous. However, all their diversity can be reduced to three main forms: economic, political and professional stratification. As a rule, they are all closely intertwined. People who belong to the highest stratum in one respect usually belong to the same stratum in other respects, and vice versa. Representatives of the highest economic strata simultaneously belong to the highest political and professional strata. The have-nots, as a rule, are deprived of civil rights and are in the lower strata of the professional hierarchy. This is the general rule, although there are many exceptions. So, for example, the richest are not always at the top of the political or professional pyramid, and also not in all cases the poor occupy the lowest places in the political and professional hierarchy. This means that the interdependence of the three forms of social stratification is far from perfect, because the different layers of each of the forms do not completely coincide with each other. Rather, they coincide with each other, but only partially, that is, to a certain extent. This fact does not allow us to analyze all three main forms of social stratification together. For greater pedantry, it is necessary to analyze each of the forms separately.
From point of view Pitirima Sorokin, social stratification Is the differentiation of a certain set of people into classes in a hierarchical rank. It finds expression in the existence of higher and lower strata. Its basis and essence lies in the uneven distribution of rights and privileges, responsibilities and duties, the presence or absence of social values, power and influence among the members of a particular community.
The specific forms of social stratification are very diverse. However, all their diversity can be reduced to three main forms: economic, political and professional stratification.
Economic stratification is expressed in the difference in income, living standards, in the existence of the rich and the poor.
Political stratification assumes the existence within a group of hierarchically different ranks, governing and controlled. Political stratification is influenced by two main factors: the size of the political organization; biological, psychological and social homogeneity or heterogeneity of its members. Regularities: when the size of the political organization increases, that is, the number of its members increases, political stratification also increases, and vice versa; when the heterogeneity of the members of the organization increases, stratification also increases, and vice versa.
TO professional stratification can be attributed to the allocation of various groups in society by the nature of their activities, occupations. Moreover, some professions are considered more prestigious in comparison with others. Professional stratification can be inter-professional and intra-professional.
As a rule, all 3 forms of stratification are closely intertwined. For example, representatives of the highest economic strata simultaneously belong to the highest political and professional strata. This is the general rule, although there are many exceptions. So, for example, the richest are not always at the top of the political or professional pyramid, and also not in all cases the poor occupy the lowest places in the political and professional hierarchy.
In this regard, Sorokin notes that many researchers are mistaken, distinguishing, for example, two social classes: "poor" and "rich". This means that they only take into account economic stratification, considering it the only form of social stratification.
It is also important that any organized social group is always socially stratified. Not a single permanent social group existed and does not exist in which all its members would be equal. Even in primitive social groups, stratification is emerging.
Under social mobility any transition of an individual or social group from one social position to another is understood. Among the types of social mobility can be distinguished: individual and group, vertical and horizontal, intergenerational and intragenerational.
Under horizontal social mobility the transition of an individual from one social group to another, located at the same level, is meant. For example, the transfer of an individual from one citizenship to another, from one family to another, from one factory to another, while maintaining his professional status.
Under vertical social mobility means movement associated with a change in place in the social hierarchy or the movement of an individual from one social stratum to another. There are two types of vertical mobility, depending on the direction of travel: ascending and descending, that is, social ascent and social descent.
Upward currents exist in two forms: penetration of an individual from a lower layer into a higher layer; or the penetration of the whole group into a higher layer. Accordingly, the downward currents also have two forms: the first is the fall of the individual from a higher social position to a lower one, without destroying the original group to which he belonged; another form manifests itself in the degradation of the social group as a whole, in the lowering of its rank against the background of other groups, or in the destruction of its social unity.
Cases of individual penetration into higher strata or falling from a high social level to a low one are familiar and understandable; they do not need explanation. With regard to group upward and downward mobility, one can cite such examples as the Brahman caste in India, which did not always occupy high positions and has been the highest caste for the last two millennia; the rank of the highest clergy of the Christian Church in Rome, which was undoubtedly high in the Middle Ages, but much lower in modern times; the Bolsheviks in Russia, who did not have a high position before the revolution, but who took high positions in Russian society after.
It is also important to distinguish intragenerational mobility, which involves a change in the status of an individual within one generation and intergenerational mobility, which takes place during the change of generations and can be expressed either in the intergenerational continuity of social statuses or in the acquisition of a different experience, level of education, the development of new professions.
The paths along which people move from one social group to another are called channels of social mobility... The functions of social circulation are performed by various institutions. The most important of these social institutions are: the army, church, school, political, economic and professional organizations.
Army. This institution plays a particularly important role in wartime, that is, during periods of interstate and civil wars... In the course of the war, these people are promoted in rank, first of all, if they have talent. The power thus obtained is used for further promotion. The ability to rob, loot, humiliate their victim in every possible way, take revenge on enemies, surround themselves with titles, etc. provides such people new opportunity to swim in luxury, to pass on their power by inheritance to descendants. In peacetime, the army continues to play the role of a channel for vertical circulation, but during these periods its role is much less than in wartime.
Church. The second channel of vertical social circulation was and is the church. But the church fulfills this function only when its social significance increases. As an example, we can cite the Christian Church, thanks to which slaves and dependent peasants, people of simple origin, having become ministers of a cult, received freedom and achieved high positions in society. This also includes other religious organizations: Buddhism, Islam, Taoism, Confucianism, Hinduism, Judaism, despite their closed caste nature, played the role of channels of vertical circulation in the respective societies.
School. The institutions of education and upbringing, no matter what specific form they take, have been the means of vertical social circulation in all centuries. In modern Western society, schools represent one of the most important channels of vertical circulation, and this manifests itself in a wide variety of forms. Without graduating from a university or college, in fact, it is impossible (and in some European countries forbidden even legally) to achieve any prominent position among high government ranks and in many other areas, and vice versa, a graduate with an excellent university degree is easily promoted and holds responsible government positions, regardless of his origin and his family.
Government groups, political organizations, and political parties. As a channel for social circulation, political organizations are now very important. In democratic countries, where the institution of elections plays a decisive role in establishing rulers in order to be elected, a person must in some way demonstrate his personality, aspirations and abilities, successfully fulfill the functions of a leader, be it a senator, mayor, minister or president. The easiest way is political activity or participation in any political organization. Without this, there is very little chance of attracting the attention of voters and being elected.
Professional organization... Some of these organizations also play a large role in the vertical movement of individuals. Such are the scientific, literary, creative institutions and organizations. Since the entrance to these organizations was relatively free for everyone who showed the appropriate abilities, regardless of their social status, then the advancement within such institutions was accompanied by a general advancement on the social ladder. Many scientists, lawyers, writers, painters, musicians, architects, sculptors, doctors, actors, singers and other creators of simple origin rose socially thanks to this channel.
Wealth Creation Organizations... We are talking about the accumulation of wealth as one of the simplest and most effective ways of social advancement. If a person is rich, then all doors are open to him, regardless of origin and source of income.
Family and marriage. Marriage usually leads one of the partners to either social advancement or social degradation. In the past, marriage to a servant or to a member of a lower caste led to a "social downfall" of one of the partners, who previously occupied a higher position, and, accordingly, to a decrease in the social rank of his children.
Attention should also be paid to the concepts of intensity (or speed) and universality of vertical social mobility.
Under intensity refers to the vertical social distance or the number of layers - economic, professional or political - traversed by an individual in his upward or downward movement for a certain period of time.
Under universality vertical mobility refers to the number of individuals who have changed their social position in the vertical direction over a certain period of time.
By combining the intensity and generality of vertical mobility in a particular social sphere, it is possible to obtain an aggregate indicator of the vertical economic mobility of a given society.
Depending on the indicators of intensity and universality, two types of society are distinguished - closed and open, which are ideal types with minimum indicators of intensity and universality of mobility in the first case and maximum in the second.
Closed society- a society in which opportunities for vertical movement are difficult, limited, or even absent for some social groups. These include slave, caste and estate states.
Open society- a society in which opportunities for vertical movement are equal and accessible to all. Open societies include modern democracies.
General principles of vertical mobility:
First statement... There have hardly ever been societies whose social strata were completely closed or lacked vertical mobility.
Second statement. There has never been a society in which vertical social mobility would be absolutely free, and the transition from one social stratum to another would be carried out without any resistance.
Third statement... The intensity and universality of vertical social mobility changes from society to society, that is, in space.
Fourth statement... The intensity and universality of vertical mobility - economic, political and professional - fluctuate within the same society at different periods of its history.
Fifth statement... In vertical mobility in its three main forms, there is no constant direction either towards strengthening or towards weakening its intensity and universality. This assumption is valid for the history of any country, for the history of large social organisms, and, finally, for the entire history of mankind.
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