Presentation on the topic "Byzantine art". "Middle Ages

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Mausoleum

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Mausoleum of Galla Placidia

The Mausoleum of Galla Placidia received its name in honor of the untimely deceased daughter of Emperor Theodosius the Great. In fact, it is not a mausoleum, since Galla Placidia is buried in Rome.

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During the glorious reign of Emperor Justinian I, Italy was temporarily recaptured from the barbarians. To commemorate this event, a church dedicated to the holy martyr Vitaly (San Vitale) was built in the former capital of the Ostrogoth king Theodoric, the city of Ravenna. Educational material Church of San Vitale in Ravenna (mid-6th century) 26

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Church of San Vitale in Ravenna

The Church of San Vitale is an example of a centric building; the plan is octagonal with a faceted altar. The basis of the structure is made up of 8 supports supporting the dome. The supports are connected by semicircular two-story arches. Like all early Christian churches, it surprises with the contrast between the rich interior decoration and the ascetic to the point of poverty exterior. The monotony of its facades is broken only by powerful counterforts. This is a typical example of internal architecture, as if emphasizing that it is not the outer shell that is important, but only the inner essence, that this is a place for gathering believers, prayers and church services. The interior of the church is magnificent: lacy capitals of the columns, countless arches, continuous mosaic of the walls, the predominant color is gold.

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Arts and crafts

Emperor Constantine, 6th century agate cameo in a 14th-15th century gilt frame, approx. 25 cm. National Library. Paris

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Emperor-triumphant

Emperor-triumphant, so-called "Barberini ivory", VI century, 34 x 26.8 cm. Louvre, Paris

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"Macedonian Renaissance"

The great Slavic enlighteners Cyril and Methodius. The classic completion of the structural system of the cross-domed form of the temple in the 9th-10th centuries. The highest achievement of Byzantine art of the Macedonian dynasty is cloisonné enamel on gold.

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Iconography

By the 10th century In Byzantine fine art, in particular in painting, an iconographic canon was finally formed - strict rules for depicting all scenes of religious content and images of saints, as well as a stable canon in the depiction of a person. The aesthetics of contemplative peace, solemn tranquility, and unearthly orderliness entailed the creation of a stable and unchanging iconography. Iconographic types and subjects have remained almost unchanged for centuries. The deep spiritualism of the aesthetic views of the Byzantine aristocratic society did not, however, lead the art of Byzantium completely into the world of naked abstraction.

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Art during the reign of the Komnenos

XI-XII centuries Massive construction of monasteries. The emergence of a unique type of temple - triconcha. The increasing importance of paintings. The composition of the multifaceted symbolism of the organization of the internal space of the temple. The place of the iconostasis in the decoration of the temple. Byzantine canon of iconography.

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manuscript of “Words” of John Chrysostom

The 11th century was a period of extraordinary growth in book illustration. The center for the creation of truly magnificent codices was the imperial scriptorium in Constantinople. Here, real masterpieces of book miniatures were created by order of the emperors. These include the manuscript of the “Words” of John Chrysostom, made for Emperor Nikephoros Botaniates (1078-1081). One of the miniatures depicts Nikephoros Votanian himself in a magnificent

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Mosaics Hosios Lucas

The mosaics of Hosios Loukas appeared almost simultaneously with the mosaics of Nea Moni - in the second quarter. 11th century, but they belong to a completely different artistic circle. The decorative system itself already has a number of specific features indicating the local, provincial origin of the monument.

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In terms of mosaic style, Hosios Loukas represent a typically monastic, provincial art full of severe asceticism. Short, large-headed figures are presented in frozen, frontal poses, large eyes give their faces a stern, concentrated expression, colorful modeling is replaced by a purely flat interpretation, there is no slightest hint of the characteristics of a specific space, hard, angular, dry lines prevail everywhere. The compositions are spread out on a plane, having something motionless in them and easily breaking up into individual components. The coloring is in dull colors, dominated by a gloomy black background. Among Greek mosaics, those of Hosios Loukas are the most archaic. They lie apart from the line of development of Constantinople art, being closely connected with old, purely Eastern traditions.

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Meeting of the Lord. Naos mosaic. Catholicon of the monastery of Hosios Loukas in Phokis. Byzantium, 1030s

Mary holds the baby Christ with both hands and conveys His rights. Simeon. Simeon receives the Savior with his hidden hands as a sign of special reverence. The baby holds out his hands to him. Joseph follows Mary, holding two turtle doves. Behind Simeon is the prophetess Anna with a scroll.

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Meeting of the Lord. Naos mosaic. Catholicon of the Monastery of Hosios Loukas in Phokis

The scene takes place inside the temple, which is indicated by the image of the canopy of the sanctuary and a cloth thrown in front of the entrance to the sanctuary, decorated with a golden cross, as on the cover of the Throne. The composition is made symmetrically. Standing female figures alternate with moving male ones, and the colors of their clothes also alternate: shades of white in the clothes of Joseph and Simeon and dark blue and purple colors of the Maforians in Mary and Anna.

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Mosaic "Christ Pantocrator"

Mosaic "Christ Pantocrator (Pantocrator)", c. 1320, Church of Christ the Savior in Kore, Istanbul (Türkiye)

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Gospel scenes

Gospel scenes occupy an extremely limited space; individual figures of saints predominate, somewhat chaotically scattered throughout the temple. This violates the strict architectural character of the decoration, which is typical of Constantinople art.

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The dome represents the Pantocrator, surrounded by four archangels, the Virgin Mary and the Forerunner, in the drum - 16 prophets (almost nothing has survived from this part of the decoration, replaced by frescoes in the 16th century), in the apse - the seated Virgin Mary with the Child, in the recess of the apse windows - enclosed in Deisis medallions, in the hipped vault above the throne - the Descent of the Holy Spirit, on the triumphal arch - two archangels, in the niches of the naos - four church fathers, in the trompos of the Annunciation (lost), the Nativity of Christ, the Presentation of the Lord, Baptism. The narfic depicts four scenes - the Washing of the Feet, the Crucifixion, the Descent into Hell, and the Assurance of Thomas.

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Iconography

Mosaic icon of the 12th–early 13th century. 34x23 cm. The icon is one of the rarest mosaic images in Sinai. It was probably sent from Constantinople, where one of the few centers for the production of such icons existed. Expensive mosaic icons required special and sophisticated craftsmanship, so the surviving monuments, almost without exception, are of the highest artistic level.

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Mosaic icon of the 12th–early 13th century

The image was composed of the smallest cubes of specially prepared glassy smalt, which usually numbered more than a hundred shades and made it possible to convey the finest pictorial effects. The icons were originally created as gate images of the chapel, glorifying the Sinai revelations to Moses and the main shrine of the monastery. Under the altar throne in the chapel, pilgrims can still touch this living relic.

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Moses at the Burning Bush

This image is paired with another icon, “Moses Receiving the Tablets,” which is identical in size and style of writing, revealing the hand of the same icon painter. Now the icons are located above the southern and northern entrances to the chapel of the Burning Bush, adjacent from the east to the altar apse of the basilica and erected on the legendary site of the epiphany to Moses in a burning but unburnt bush. Slide 47

At the beginning of the 13th century, a type of hagiographic icons appeared in which the image of the saint in the center (in the middle) was surrounded by stamps depicting the events of his life. In icon painting, a moment of literature and storytelling appears. On the icon in the middle we see St. Catherine in royal clothes - she came from the royal family. In her right hand she holds a red cross - a symbol of martyrdom. On the stamps you can see various scenes in the upper register.

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Our Lady Hodegetria

Icon. Thessalonica (?), second half of the 14th century. Wood, tempera. 109 x 46 cm. Origin: Veroia, icon of the templon of the Church of Pantocrator. Location: Byzantine Museum, Veroia, Greece.

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Iconography

Unlike the Muslim East, where the primacy of the spiritual over the carnal led to the dominance of geometricism and ornamental forms in the fine arts, replacing the image of man, in the art of Byzantium man still remained at the center of artistic creativity. After the victory over the iconoclasts in art, they again turned to Hellenism, but with a deep processing of its traditions in order to increase the spirituality of artistic creativity. If the pagan world glorified the physical beauty of man, then Byzantine art glorified his spiritual greatness and ascetic purity.

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"Palaeologian Renaissance"

The rise of Byzantine culture at the turn of the XIII-XIV centuries. “Palaeologian Renaissance” as a return to what was lost. Transformation of the temple from one-domed to six-domed. Features of Paleologian painting. Strengthening the secular principle. Increasing interest in ancient heritage in architectural and landscape compositions. The revival of hesychast ideas in the 14th and early 15th centuries. Establishment in art of the ascetic image of the saint.

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Late Byzantine period of art

The 15th century is the time of decline of Byzantine culture. The fall of Constantinople and the end of the Byzantine state. The meaning of Byzantine art. The influence of the artistic culture of Byzantium of the Palaiologan period on the art of the Proto-Renaissance in Florence, Venetian art of the Trecento era and Rossi as its spiritual heir.

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Questions for self-test 52 Name the directions in which the development of early Christian art of the Eastern Roman Empire took place. List the main features of the Byzantine artistic style during the reign of Justinian the Great. What were the main achievements of Byzantine art during the Macedonian Renaissance? Reveal the symbolic meaning of the organization of the internal space of the temple during the time of the Komnenos. Tell us about the features of the fine arts of the “Palaeologian Renaissance”.

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Recommended reading 53 Velmans T. The Byzantine World. Temple architecture and painting / T. Velmans, V. Korac, M. Shuput. - M.: White City, 2006. - 528 p. Weiss G. History of culture of the peoples of the world. Arab conquests. The Rise of Byzantium - M.: Eksmo, 2005. - 144 p. Gnedich P. P. History of arts. Painting. Sculpture. Architecture: modern version - M.: Eksmo, 2007. - 848 p. Shalina I. A. Relics in Eastern Christian iconography / I. A. Shalina. - M.: Indrik, 2005. - 536 p.

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Periods of the history of Byzantine art and their characteristics early Christian period (the so-called pre-Byzantine culture, I-III centuries) early Christian period (the so-called pre-Byzantine culture, I-III centuries) III centuries III centuries early Byzantine period, the “golden age” of Emperor Justinian I, architecture of the Holy Temple Sophia in Constantinople and Ravenna mosaics (VI-VII centuries) early Byzantine period, the "golden age" of Emperor Justinian I, architecture of the Church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople and Ravenna mosaics (VI-VII centuries)Temple of Hagia SophiaConstantinopolravennaVII centuriesTemple of Hagia SophiaConstantinopolravennaVII centuries iconoclastic period (VIII- beginning of the 9th century). Emperor Leo III the Isaurian (717741), founder of the Isaurian dynasty, issued an Edict banning icons. This period was called the “dark time” largely by analogy with a similar stage in the development of Western Europe. iconoclastic period (8th-early 9th centuries). Emperor Leo III the Isaurian (717741), founder of the Isaurian dynasty, issued an Edict banning icons. This period was called the “dark time” in many respects by analogy with a similar stage in the development of Western Europe. Leo III the Isaurian717741Western EuropeLeo III the Isaurian717741Western Europe Macedonian Renaissance period () It is generally considered to be the classical period of Byzantine art. The 11th century was the highest point of prosperity. Information about the world was drawn from the Bible and from the works of ancient authors. The harmony of art was achieved through strict regulation. period of the Macedonian Renaissance () It is generally considered to be the classical period of Byzantine art. The 11th century was the highest point of prosperity. Information about the world was drawn from the Bible and from the works of ancient authors. The harmony of art was achieved through strict regulation XI century Bible XI century Bible period of conservatism under the emperors of the Komnenos dynasty () period of conservatism under the emperors of the Komnenos dynasty () Komnenos period of the Palaiologan Renaissance, revival of Hellenistic traditions (). the period of the Paleologian Renaissance, the revival of Hellenistic traditions ().Paleologovsky Paleologovsky

Pala d'Oro, XXII centuries. cloisonné enamel. 334×251 cmCathedral of St. Mark's, Venice XXIICathedral of St. Mark'sVeniceXXIICathedral of St. Mark'sVenice

Contents Byzantine art in the 5th-7th centuries Byzantine art in the 5th-7th centuries Byzantine art in the 5th-7th centuries Byzantine art in the 5th-7th centuries Mosaics of Ravenna Mosaics of Ravenna Mosaics of Ravenna Mosaics of Ravenna Mosaics of the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo Mosaics of the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare- Nuovo Mosaics of the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo Mosaics of the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo Walls of the Church of San Vitale Walls of the Church of San Vitale Walls of the Church of San Vitale Walls of the Church of San Vitale Mosaics of the Church of the Assumption in Nicaea Mosaics of the Church of the Assumption in Nicaea Mosaics of the Church of the Assumption in Nicaea Mosaics of the Church of the Assumption in Nicaea Nicaea Mosaics of the church of St. Demetrius in Thessaloniki Mosaics of the church of St. Demetrius in Thessaloniki Mosaics of the church of St. Demetrius in Thessaloniki Mosaics of the church of St. Demetrius in Thessaloniki Frescoes of the church in Castelseprio Frescoes of the church in Castelseprio Frescoes of the church in Castelseprio Frescoes of the church in Castelseprio Byzantine art in the 8th 12th century Icons Byzantine art in the 8th-12th centuries Icons Byzantine art in the 8th-12th centuries Icons Byzantine art in the 8th-12th centuries Icons Our Lady of Vladimir Our Lady of Vladimir Our Lady of Vladimir Our Lady of Vladimir Lamentation of Christ Lamentation of Christ Lamentation of Christ Lamentation of Christ

Byzantine art in the 5th-7th centuries The surviving monuments give only a weak idea of ​​the painting of this period. The process of formation of a new medieval style did not proceed in exactly the same way in different artistic centers. Along with the triumph of Christianity as the state religion, there is a certain revival of the ancient tradition, especially in court art. The nature of secular painting is known mainly from written sources. During recent excavations of the “Great Palace” in Constantinople, floor mosaics of diverse content were discovered: hunting scenes, images of real and fantastic animals, children riding camels, musicians, fishermen, figures of shepherds and children playing. All these images are full of spontaneity and keen observation. All of them testify to the strength of ancient tradition in this monument, which most likely dates from the 5th century. The surviving monuments give only a weak idea of ​​the painting of this period. The process of formation of a new medieval style did not proceed in exactly the same way in different artistic centers. Along with the triumph of Christianity as the state religion, there is a certain revival of the ancient tradition, especially in court art. The nature of secular painting is known mainly from written sources. During recent excavations of the “Great Palace” in Constantinople, floor mosaics of diverse content were discovered: hunting scenes, images of real and fantastic animals, children riding camels, musicians, fishermen, figures of shepherds and children playing. All these images are full of spontaneity and keen observation. All of them testify to the strength of ancient tradition in this monument, which most likely dates from the 5th century.

Mosaics of Ravenna The most complete idea of ​​the nature of early Byzantine paintings and their gradual evolution can be obtained from the monuments of Ravenna. The most common technique for interior decoration of buildings was mosaics, which decorated the vaults and upper parts of the walls, while the lower parts were usually covered with multi-colored stone slabs, sometimes with the use of inlay, or ornamental painting. The most complete idea of ​​the nature of early Byzantine paintings and their gradual evolution can be obtained from the monuments of Ravenna. The most common technique for interior decoration of buildings was mosaics, which decorated the vaults and upper parts of the walls, while the lower parts were usually covered with multi-colored stone slabs, sometimes with the use of inlay, or ornamental painting. Good Shepherd. Mosaic of the mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna. Mid-5th century. In the Ravenna mosaics of the 5th century, favorite subjects of catacomb paintings are found: such, for example, is Christ the Good Shepherd in the tomb of Galla Placidia, presented here, however, in rich purple and gold clothes against the backdrop of a developed landscape.

Mosaics of the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo The decoration of the basilica, built into a single ensemble, is located in three tiers, architecturally connected to each other. In the lowest tier, a procession of martyrs and martyrs is depicted in a frequent and monotonous rhythm. The decoration of the basilica, built into a single ensemble, is located in three tiers, architecturally connected to each other. In the lowest tier, a procession of martyrs and martyrs is depicted in a frequent and monotonous rhythm. The procession heads from the western wall to the altar, where there are images of Christ and the Mother of God, seated on thrones on both sides of the basilica.

The walls of the Church of San Vitale Such scenes indicate the desire of the church to assert its influence in modern reality. On the other hand, the emperors themselves used the authority of the church to strengthen their power. Interesting in this regard are two ceremonial compositions located in the main apse. One of them depicts Emperor Justinian and the other his wife Theodora, surrounded by their retinue. Scenes like these indicate the church's desire to assert its influence in modern reality. On the other hand, the emperors themselves used the authority of the church to strengthen their power. Interesting in this regard are two ceremonial compositions located in the main apse. One of them depicts Emperor Justinian and the other his wife Theodora, surrounded by their retinue. The walls of the Church of San Vitale are covered with well-preserved decorative and narrative mosaics, among which there are a number of biblical scenes. Of significant interest is the image of the young Christ sitting on a sphere, on the sides of which are placed not only angels, but also real historical figures: St. Vitaly accepting the crown from Christ, and Archbishop Ecclesius presenting a model of the temple. Young Christ on the sphere. 6th century

Mosaic from the Church of San Vitale in Ravenna. 6th century Emperor Justinian with his retinue. Theodora with her retinue. The faces of the emperor and empress, as well as the leading dignitaries accompanying them, still retain the features of a portrait of Nastya, while the figures are all interpreted from the front and motionlessly lined up in one row in front of the viewer. There is no sense of body behind the folds of clothing, and the arrangement of the folds and the gestures of the figures are subordinated to the linear rhythms of an abstract drawing. The same features of frozen and abstract images, the characteristic asceticism of faces and the flat interpretation of motionless figures characterize many other Ravenna mosaics of the 6th century.

Mosaic from the Church of Sant'Apollinare in Classe in Ravenna. 7th century In the mosaics of the church of Sant'Apollinare in Classe (St. Apollinaris in the Harbor), partially redone in the 7th century, the development of the abstract style continues. In the apse there is a symbolic composition “Transfiguration”, where the cross stands for Christ and the sheep for the apostles. Biblical scenes and monumental figures of archangels in court robes are distinguished by certain schematic features. Transfiguration.

Mosaics of the Church of the Assumption in Nicaea The small domed Church of the Assumption in Nicaea, destroyed by a shell explosion during the war in 1922, contained mosaics depicting four angels. Researchers of mosaics date back to the 6th-7th centuries. These mosaics are made in the traditions of ancient painting. The figures of angels and their faces are depicted using smalt of various colors. Bright painterly “strokes” merge in the eyes of the viewer into expressive plastic images. The complete absence of linear contours, characteristic of many mosaics of the later period, a clearly identified sensual interpretation and great subtlety in conveying images of beautiful young faces characterize the Nicene mosaics. The small domed Church of the Assumption in Nicaea, destroyed by a shell during the war in 1922, contained mosaics depicting four angels. Researchers of mosaics date back to the 6th-7th centuries. These mosaics are made in the traditions of ancient painting. The figures of angels and their faces are depicted using smalt of various colors. Bright painterly “strokes” merge in the viewer’s eyes into expressive plastic images. The complete absence of linear contours, characteristic of many mosaics of the later period, a clearly identified sensual interpretation and great subtlety in conveying images of beautiful young faces characterize the Nicene mosaics. Fragment of the mosaic "Heavenly Powers" in the Church of the Assumption in Nicaea.

Mosaics of the Church of St. Demetrius in Thessaloniki Another center that has preserved a number of early monuments is Thessaloniki. The decoration of the church dates back to the beginning of the 7th century. This temple was built in the form of a basilica. Its decoration with multi-colored marbles and mosaics represented a rich, specifically Byzantine polychrome whole. Particularly interesting were the scenes illustrating the life of Demetrius. The surviving portraits of the founders of the temple display a subtle sense of color and skillful rendering of individual features. All images are of high quality. Another center that has preserved a number of early monuments is Thessalonica. The decoration of the church dates back to the beginning of the 7th century. This temple was built in the form of a basilica. Its decoration with multi-colored marbles and mosaics represented a rich, specifically Byzantine polychrome whole. Particularly interesting were the scenes illustrating the life of Demetrius. The surviving portraits of the founders of the temple display a subtle sense of color and skillful rendering of individual features. All images are of high quality. Mosaic of the Basilica of St. Demetrius in Thessalonica. Mid 7th century

Frescoes of the church in Castelseprio Antique traditions can also be traced in the frescoes of the church of Sita Maria Antiqua in Rome and, especially, in the recently cleared frescoes of the church in Castelseprio. A number of scenes from the childhood of Christ have been preserved here, including “The Nativity”, “Adoration of the Magi”, “Candlemas” and others. The free movement of figures, a broad pictorial brushwork, transparent color, and many individual motifs going back to ancient prototypes give Castelseprio’s paintings a special vitality associated with the still unextinguished traditions of antiquity. Antique traditions can also be traced in the frescoes of the church of Sita Maria Antiqua in Rome and, especially, in the recently cleared frescoes of the church in Castelseprio. A number of scenes from the childhood of Christ have been preserved here, including “The Nativity”, “Adoration of the Magi”, “Candlemas” and others. The free movement of figures, a broad pictorial brushwork, transparent color, and many individual motifs going back to ancient prototypes give Castelseprio’s paintings a special vitality associated with the still unextinguished traditions of antiquity. Nativity. Fresco of the church in Castelseprio. End of 7th century

Byzantine art in the 8th-12th centuries Icons This period of Byzantine art began with icon veneration, and in a broad sense - the triumph of the anthropomorphic, classical foundations of the entire culture, and ended with a national tragedy - the defeat of Constantinople by the crusaders in 1204. This period of Byzantine art began with icon veneration, and in a broad sense sense - the triumph of the anthropomorphic, classical foundations of the entire culture, and ended in a national tragedy - the defeat of Constantinople by the crusaders in 1204. This is the period of the highest flowering of Byzantine art, the greatest refinement of its style, its highest spiritual richness, the full development of all the signs of "Byzatinism". This is also the time of its wide expansion to all countries of the Orthodox world and even to Western European states. This is the period of the highest flowering of Byzantine art, the greatest refinement of its style, its highest spiritual richness, and the complete development of all the signs of “Byzatinism.” This is also the time of its wide expansion to all countries of the Orthodox world and even to Western European states.

The rare subtlety of execution, the richness of color (all shades of brown, gold and red) speak of the hand of an outstanding master of the Constantinople school. But what is most striking is the extraordinary expressiveness of the mournful face and the touching maternal tenderness with which Mary clung to the baby. The face of the Mother of God with a pure oval, thin nose and large almond-shaped eyes is imbued with genuine human suffering. It seems incomprehensible how the artist managed to achieve such an impression, without outwardly going beyond the canon of “Our Lady of Eleus”. The rare subtlety of execution, the richness of color (all shades of brown, gold and red) speak of the hand of an outstanding master of the Constantinople school. But what is most striking is the extraordinary expressiveness of the mournful face and the touching maternal tenderness with which Mary clung to the baby. The face of the Mother of God with a pure oval, thin nose and large almond-shaped eyes is imbued with genuine human suffering. It seems incomprehensible how the artist managed to achieve such an impression, without outwardly going beyond the canon of “Our Lady of Eleus”. Deep sorrow fills Mary’s bowed face, her dark eyes are sad, as in almost all examples of Byzantine art, from which the human smile has disappeared forever. Deep sorrow fills Mary’s bowed face, her dark eyes are sad, as in almost all examples of Byzantine art, from which the human smile has disappeared forever. Our Lady of Vladimir

Lamentation of Christ To make the icon characters look disembodied, Byzantine masters made them flat. At the same time, icon painters had to abandon the multifaceted landscape or architectural background. Later, the background plane began to be covered with gold, which in Christian symbolism meant Divine light. The shimmering gilding created the impression of intangibility, the immersion of the figures in some mystical space. The golden glow spread over the entire picturesque surface excluded any other source of light; even if there was a sun or a candle on the icon, they did not affect the illumination of other objects, so Byzantine painters did not use light and shadow. A special technique arose of sequentially applying lightening layers of paint on top of each other, with the lightest being the most convex point of the surface, regardless of its location. The paints themselves also became different: encaustic was replaced by tempera. To make the icon characters look disembodied, Byzantine masters made them flat. At the same time, icon painters had to abandon the multifaceted landscape or architectural background. Later, the background plane began to be covered with gold, which in Christian symbolism meant Divine light. The shimmering gilding created the impression of intangibility, the immersion of the figures in some mystical space. The golden glow spread over the entire picturesque surface excluded any other source of light; even if there was a sun or a candle on the icon, they did not affect the lighting of other objects, so Byzantine painters did not use light and shadow. A special technique arose of sequentially applying lightening layers of paint on top of each other, with the lightest being the most convex point of the surface, regardless of its location. The paints themselves also became different: encaustic was replaced by tempera.