Introduction page 3
General concept of temperament p.4
From the history of teachings about the types of temperament p.4
Basic Components of Temperament p.7
Types of temperament page 8
Properties of temperament p.11
The role of temperament in activity p.11
Temperament and character p.13
Temperament and communication p.13
Temperament and Personality p.13
Human nutrition and temperament p.14
Modern approach p.15
Conclusion p.16
Literature p.17

Introduction

Temperament is one of the most significant personality traits. Interest in this problem arose more than two and a half thousand years ago. It was caused by the obvious existence of individual differences, which are due to the peculiarities of the biological and physiological structure and development of the organism, as well as the peculiarities of social development, the uniqueness of social ties and contacts.
Temperament determines the presence of many mental differences between people, including the intensity and stability of emotions, emotional impressionability, the pace and vigor of actions, as well as a number of other dynamic characteristics.
Despite the fact that repeated and constant attempts have been made to investigate the problem of temperament, this problem still belongs to the category of controversial and not completely resolved problems of modern psychological science.
Today there are many approaches to the study of temperament. However, with all the existing variety of approaches, most researchers recognize that temperament is the biological foundation on which a person is formed as a social being, and personality traits due to temperament are the most stable and long-term.

General concept of temperament

All people differ in the peculiarities of their behavior: some are mobile, energetic, emotional; others are slow, calm, imperturbable; someone is closed, secretive, sad. In the speed of occurrence, depth and strength of feelings, in the speed of movements, the general mobility of a person finds expression of his temperament- a property of a person that gives a peculiar coloring to all the activities and behavior of people.
Temperament- these are the innate features of a person that determine the dynamic characteristics of the intensity and speed of response, the degree of emotional excitability and balance, the features of adaptation to the environment.
Temperament(lat. temperamentum - the proper ratio of features, from tempero - I mix in the proper ratio) - a characteristic of the individual from the side of the dynamic features of his mental activity, i.e., the pace, speed, rhythm, intensity that make up this activity of mental processes and states.
Temperament determines and ensures the speed, strength and balance of our reactions. It manifests itself in thinking, speech, manner of communication. At the same time, temperament does not affect interests, success, intelligence, business qualities - here we are able to independently develop our inclinations, turn them into abilities or forget about them.
Knowing your own type of temperament greatly simplifies the process of knowing yourself, accepting your manifestations and, as a result, choosing your own lifestyle.
Temperament human being is a biological quality, innate, not acquired. Only 25% of 100% temperament can be corrected. And this correction is our adjustment to the requirements of society (the world around us, society ...). For what? For a more efficient and successful existence.

From the history of teachings about the types of temperament

Observing how the teachings about temperament developed, one can understand what tools the researchers had.

Hippocrates and Galen could only see the fluids inside the corpse at autopsy (after all, the 5th and 2nd centuries BC).
Kant, Kretschmer, Sheldon already had knowledge of the internal structure of human tissues.
Pavlov had already studied reflexes and properties of nervous processes.

Hippocrates (5th century BC) spoke about temperaments for the first time. He argued that people differ in the ratio of the 4 main "juices" of life that make up its composition:

blood,
phlegm,
yellow bile and
black bile.

Claudius Galen (2nd century BC) continued. He developed the first typology of temperaments (the treatise "De temperamentum"). According to his teaching, the type of temperament depends on the predominance of one of the juices in the body. They were allocated temperaments, which in our time are widely known:

choleric (from the Greek. chole - "bile"),
sanguine (from lat. sanguis - "blood"),
phlegmatic (from Greek - phlegma - "phlegm"),
melancholic (from the Greek. melas chole - "black bile").

Then there were the typologies of I. Kant, E. Kretschmer, W. Sheldon.

The German philosopher I. Kant was the first to generalize and systematize the characteristics of temperament types ("Anthropology", 1789). Kant considered the qualitative characteristics of blood to be the organic basis of temperament, that is, he shared the position of supporters of humoral theories. The main division of the doctrine of temperaments is this: the temperaments of feeling and the temperaments of action are divided into two types, which together gives four temperaments. However, Kant allowed in his interpretations a mixture of traits of temperament and character.
Analyzing the totality of morphological features, Kretschmer identifies, on the basis of the criteria he developed, the main constitutional body types and makes an attempt to determine temperament precisely through these types of morphological constitutions.
Morphological theories of temperament also include the concept of the American psychologist W. Sheldon, who distinguishes three main types of somatic constitution (“somatotype”): endomorphic, mesomorphic and ectomorphic. For the endomorphic type, in his opinion, the softness and roundness of the external appearance, the weak development of the bone and muscular systems are characteristic; corresponds to it viscerotonic temperament with love for comfort, with sensual aspirations, relaxation and slow reactions. The mesomorphic type is characterized by cruelty and harshness of behavior, the predominance of the musculoskeletal system, athleticism and strength; associated with him somatotonic temperament, with a love of adventure, a tendency to take risks, a thirst for muscular action, activity, courage, aggressiveness. The ectomorphic type of constitution is characterized by grace and fragility of the bodily appearance, the absence of pronounced muscles; corresponds to this somatotype cerebrotonic temperament, characterized by low sociability, a tendency to isolation and loneliness, increased reactivity.
The main disadvantage of humoral and morphological theories is that they take as the root cause of behavioral manifestations of temperament such body systems that do not and cannot have the properties necessary for this.
The basis for the development of a truly scientific theory of temperament was created by the teachings of IP Pavlov on the typological properties of the nervous system of animals and humans.
I.P. Pavlov put forward a hypothesis that some fundamental properties of nervous processes - excitation and inhibition - underlie the differences in behavior. These properties include:

excitation strength - reflects the performance of the nerve cell. It manifests itself in functional endurance, i.e. in the ability to withstand prolonged or short-term, but strong excitation, without passing into the opposite state of inhibition.
braking force - is understood as the functional performance of the nervous system during the implementation of inhibition. It manifests itself in the ability to form various inhibitory conditioned reactions, such as extinction and differentiation.
their balance is the balance of the processes of excitation and inhibition. The ratio of the strength of both processes decides whether a given individual is balanced or unbalanced when the strength of one process exceeds that of the other.
their mobility/inertness - is manifested in the speed of transition of one nervous process to another. The mobility of nervous processes is manifested in the ability to change behavior in accordance with changing living conditions. The measure of this property of the nervous system is the speed of transition from one action to another, from a passive state to an active one, and vice versa. The nervous system becomes more inert the more time or effort it takes to move from one process to another.

I.P. Pavlov, distinguished between the force of excitation and the force of inhibition, considering them to be two independent properties of the nervous system.
The 4 types of the nervous system identified by I.P. Pavlov according to their main characteristics correspond to 4 classical types of temperament:

The weak type is characterized by the weakness of both excitatory and inhibitory processes - it corresponds to the Hippocratic melancholic.
A strong unbalanced type is characterized by a strong irritable process and a relatively strong inhibition process - it corresponds to a choleric, "unrestrained" type.
Strong balanced mobile type - corresponds to the sanguine, "live" type.
Strong balanced, but with inert nervous processes - corresponds to the phlegmatic, "calm" type.

I.P. Pavlov understood the type of the nervous system as innate, relatively weakly subject to changes under the influence of the environment and upbringing. According to Ivan Petrovich, the properties of the nervous system form the physiological basis of temperament, which is a mental manifestation of the type of nervous system.
Two things to note:

Weakness of the nervous system is not a negative property.
A strong nervous system copes more successfully with some life tasks (for example, in work associated with large and unexpected loads). A weak nervous system copes more successfully with others (for example, in conditions of monotonous work). A weak nervous system is a highly sensitive nervous system, and this is its advantage over a strong one.
The division of people into four types of temperament is very conditional. There are transitional, mixed, intermediate types. Pure temperaments are relatively rare.

Soviet psychologists (B. M. Teplov and others) note that the paramount scientific significance of the work of I. P. Pavlov lies in the elucidation of the main role of the properties of the nervous system as the primary and most profound parameters of the psychophysiological organization of the individual. At the present stage of the development of science, it is not yet possible to draw final scientific conclusions regarding the number of basic types of the nervous system, as well as the number of typical temperaments. Research by Soviet scientists shows that the very structure of the properties of the nervous system as neurophysiological measurements of temperament is much more complex than previously thought, and the number of basic combinations of these properties is much greater than was assumed by IP Pavlov.
However, for a practical (including psychological and pedagogical) study of personality, the division into four main types of temperament and their psychological characteristics can serve as a fairly good basis.

The main components of temperament

An analysis of the internal structure of temperament leads to the allocation of three main, leading components. Each of these components has a complex multidimensional structure and different forms of psychological manifestations.

The sphere of general mental activity of a person.

the desire of the individual for self-expression, effective development and transformation of external reality;
intellectual and characterological features, a complex of relationships and motives.

Motility. In the motor (motor) component, the leading role is played by qualities associated with the function of the motor (and special speech-motor apparatus). Among the dynamic qualities of the motor component:

rapidity,
power,
sharpness,
rhythm,
amplitude and
a number of other signs of muscle movement.

Features of muscle and speech motility can be more easily observed in humans than others. Therefore, often only this component is used to judge the temperament of a person.

Emotionality. This is a large complex of properties and qualities that characterize the features of the emergence, flow and cessation of various feelings, affects and moods. This component is the most difficult. It has a branched own structure:

Impressionability- a person's susceptibility, his sensitivity to emotional influences, his ability to find a basis for an emotional reaction where such soil does not exist for others.
Impulsiveness- the speed with which emotion becomes the motivating force of actions and actions without their preliminary reflection and conscious decision to carry them out.
emotional lability- the speed at which a given emotional state ceases or one experience is replaced by another.

The broadest meaning in the structure of temperament is that of its component, which is designated as the general mental activity of the individual.

Temperament types

Features of a person's temperament are not only manifested in his behavior, but also determine the originality of the dynamics of cognitive activity and the sphere of feelings, are reflected in the motives and actions of a person, as well as in the nature of intellectual activity, speech features, etc.
A description of the features of different temperaments can help to understand the features of a person’s temperament, if they are clearly expressed, but people with pronounced features of a certain temperament are not so common, most often people have a mixed temperament in various combinations. But the predominance of traits of any type of temperament makes it possible to attribute a person's temperament to one or another type.
Choleric - this is a person whose nervous system determines the predominance of excitation over inhibition, as a result of which he reacts very quickly, often thoughtlessly, does not have time to slow down, restrain himself, shows impatience, impulsiveness, sharpness of movements, irascibility, unbridledness, incontinence. The imbalance of his nervous system predetermines the cyclicity in the change of his activity and vigor: being carried away by some business, he works passionately, with full dedication, but his strength is not enough for a short time, and as soon as they are exhausted, he is worked out to the point that everything is unbearable for him. There is an irritated state, a bad mood, a breakdown and lethargy (“everything falls out of hand”). The alternation of positive cycles of raising mood and energy with negative cycles of decline, depression cause uneven behavior and well-being, its increased susceptibility to the manifestation of neurotic breakdowns and conflicts with people.
Phlegmatic person - a person with a strong, balanced, but inert nervous system, as a result of which he reacts slowly; taciturn, emotions appear slowly (it is difficult to anger, cheer); has a high capacity for work, well resists strong and prolonged stimuli, difficulties, but is not able to quickly respond to unexpected, new situations. He firmly remembers everything he has learned, is not able to abandon the developed skills and stereotypes, does not like to change habits, life routines, work, friends, and adapts to new conditions with difficulty and slowness. The mood is stable, even. In case of serious troubles, the phlegmatic person remains outwardly calm. He shows perseverance and perseverance in work; productive, compensating for his slowness with diligence.
melancholic - a person with a weak nervous system, who has increased sensitivity even to weak stimuli, and a strong stimulus can already cause a “breakdown”, “stopper”, confusion, “rabbit stress”, therefore, in stressful situations (exam, competition, danger, etc. .) the results of the melancholic's activities may worsen in comparison with a calm, familiar situation. Hypersensitivity leads to rapid fatigue and a drop in performance (longer rest is required). An insignificant occasion can cause resentment, tears. The mood is very changeable, but usually the melancholic tries to hide, not to show his feelings outwardly, does not talk about his experiences, is often sad, depressed, unsure of himself, anxious, he may experience neurotic disorders. However, having a high sensitivity of the nervous system, melancholics often have pronounced artistic and intellectual abilities.
sanguine - a person with a strong, balanced, mobile nervous system has a quick reaction, his actions are considered, cheerful, due to which he is characterized by high resistance to the difficulties of life. The mobility of his nervous system determines the variability of feelings, attachments, interests, views, high adaptability to new conditions. This is a sociable person, easily converges with new people, and therefore he has a wide circle of acquaintances, although he is not distinguished by constancy in communication and affection. He is a productive figure, but only when there are many interesting things to do, i.e. with constant excitement, otherwise he becomes dull, lethargic, distracted. In a stressful situation, it shows a “lion reaction”, i.e. actively, deliberately defends itself, fights for the normalization of the situation.
There is also another system of types of human temperaments. These are the so-called dominant instincts . They are represented by seven types.
egophilic.
From early childhood, he is distinguished by increased caution. It is characterized by: "symbiosis" with the mother (does not let go of the mother for a moment, shows neurotic reactions if you have to leave), a tendency to fear, intolerance to pain, anxiety about the new and unknown, a tendency to conservatism, distrust, suspicion, suspiciousness. Their motto is: “Safety and health above all else! There is only one life, and there will be no other. But with disharmony, self-centeredness and anxious suspiciousness, denial of changes and any risk are formed. Preferred color is grey.
genophilic (from lat. genus - genus).
"I" is replaced by the concept of "WE". Already in childhood, fixation on the family leads to neuropsychic disorders if there is discord in the family. People of this type subtly catch the deterioration in the well-being of their loved ones, they are very responsive. The credo of such people: “My house is my fortress! The interests of the family are paramount." Under adverse circumstances, an anxious personality is formed with the focus of anxiety on children and family. Preferred color is brown.
Altruistic.
Already in childhood, he is characterized by kindness, empathy, generosity. He understands the state of people, is ready to share the latest. Can't even hit a person back. Such people have the credo "Kindness will save the world, kindness is above all!" Violence against other people is more difficult than against oneself. The preferred color is blue.
Research.
From early childhood, people of this type have curiosity, a desire to get to the bottom of everything in everything. He upsets his parents by taking apart everything he can take apart, asking the question "why?" more often than others, puts experiments. At first, he is interested in everything, but then there is a narrowing of interests. These are passionate creative people. The preferred color is red.
Dominant.
From early childhood, there is a desire for leadership and the presence of the qualities of a true leader: the ability to organize, set a goal, show the will to achieve it. These are very courageous people, with the logic of thinking, criticality, responsibility, the ability to highlight the main thing. But in communication and business contacts, they are characterized by an orientation towards leaders and neglect of the weak. They tend to take into account the interests of the entire team. Their credo: "Business and order above all." Preferred colors are green and red.
Libertophile (from lat. libertas - freedom).
Already in the cradle, a child of this type protests sharply against being swaddled, kept in the crib for a long time. The tendency to protest against any restriction on his freedom grows with him. For people of this type, the denial of authorities is characteristic. Characterized by tolerance for pain, deprivation and the desire for independence. The tendency appears early: "My home is the whole world"; tendency to leave the parental home. The behavior manifests stubbornness, adventurism, optimism. Characterized by a tendency to change jobs, lifestyle, intolerance to routine. The credo of such people is “Freedom above all”. Preferred colors are yellow, red.
digitophilic (from lat. dignitas - dignity).
Already at an early age, a person of this type is able to catch irony, ridicule and is absolutely intolerant of any form of humiliation. In childhood, you can only negotiate with him with kindness. In defending their rights, many can sacrifice. His credo is "Honor Above All". A bit of family honor. Preferred colors are green and grey.

Temperament Properties

The properties of temperament include those distinctive individual features of a person that determine the dynamic aspects of all his activities, characterize the features of the course of mental processes, have a more or less stable character, persist for a long time, manifesting themselves soon after birth. It is believed that the properties of temperament are determined mainly by the properties of the human nervous system.
Each temperament has both positive and negative properties. Good upbringing, control and self-control makes it possible to manifest: melancholic, as an impressionable person with deep feelings and emotions; phlegmatic, as a seasoned person, without hasty decisions; sanguine, as a highly responsive person for any work; choleric, as a passionate, frantic and active person in work.
Negative properties of temperament can manifest themselves: in a melancholic - isolation and shyness; phlegmatic - indifference to people, dryness; in a sanguine person - superficiality, dispersion, inconstancy; choleric - hasty decisions.
A person of any type of temperament may or may not be capable; the type of temperament does not affect a person’s abilities, it’s just that some life tasks are easier solved by a person of one type of temperament, others - of another.

The role of temperament in activity

Naturally, the peculiarities of temperament affect in training sessions and in work activities. But the main thing is that differences in temperaments are differences not in the level of the possibility of the psyche, but in the originality of its manifestations.
Depending on the characteristics of temperament, people differ not in the end result of actions, but in the way they achieve results:
- a sanguine person should be constantly assigned new, if possible, interesting tasks that require concentration and tension from him. It is necessary to constantly include his active activity and systematically encourage his efforts.
- phlegmatic need to be involved in vigorous activity and interested. It requires systematic attention. It cannot be switched from one task to another.
- in relation to the melancholic, not only sharpness, rudeness, but also simply an increased tone, irony are unacceptable. He requires special attention, you should praise him in time for his successes, determination and will. A negative assessment should be used as carefully as possible, mitigating its negative effect in every possible way.
- melancholic - the most sensitive and vulnerable type with him, one must be extremely soft and friendly.
It depends on temperament how a person implements his actions, but their content does not depend on it. Temperament is manifested in the features of the course of mental processes, affecting the speed of recollection and the strength of memorization, the fluency of mental operations, the stability and switchability of attention.
Since each activity imposes certain requirements on the human psyche and its dynamic features, there are no temperaments that are ideally suited for all types of activity. It can be figuratively described that people of choleric temperament are more suitable for active risky activities (“warriors”), sanguine people for organizational activities (“politics”), melancholic people for creative activities in science and art (“thinkers”), phlegmatic people for systematic and fruitful activity ("creators").
For certain types of activity, professions, certain properties of a person are contraindicated, for example, slowness, inertia, and weakness of the nervous system are contraindicated for the activity of a fighter pilot. Consequently, phlegmatic and melancholic people are not very suitable for such activities.
The role of temperament in work and study lies in the fact that the influence on the activity of various mental states caused by an unpleasant environment, emotional factors, and pedagogical influences depends on it. The influence of various factors that determine the level of neuropsychic stress depends on temperament (for example, assessment of activity, expectation of activity control, acceleration of the pace of work, disciplinary influences, etc.).
There are four ways of adapting temperament to the requirements of activity.
The first way is professional selection, one of the tasks of which is to prevent persons who do not have the necessary properties of temperament from this activity. This path is implemented only in the selection for professions that place high demands on personality traits.
Second way the adaptation of temperament to activity consists in the individualization of the requirements, conditions and methods of work imposed on a person (individual approach).
third way consists in overcoming the negative influence of temperament through the formation of a positive attitude towards activity and corresponding motives.
etc.................

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Course work

The doctrine of temperament

Performed

Bezrukova Lyudmila

Introduction

Psychology is a very broad science that includes different areas. In my work, I decided to only touch this topic, touching on only a very small part of it. The theme of my term paper: "The doctrine of temperaments, their comparative characteristics."

The problem that will be discussed has occupied mankind for more than 25 centuries. It is called a beautiful and sonorous word - temperament. People begin to get acquainted with the concept of "temperament" very early. Even from childhood, we notice that there are mobile, cheerful, persistent children, while others are slow, shy, unhurried in words and deeds. It is in these features that temperament is manifested.

The famous psychologist Merlin wrote: “Imagine two rivers - one is calm, flat, the other is swift, mountainous. The course of the first is barely noticeable, it smoothly carries its waters, it does not have bright splashes, stormy waterfalls and splashes. The second one is the complete opposite. The river rushes quickly, the water in it rumbles, boils and, hitting the stones, turns into shreds of foam ... Something similar can be observed in the behavior of people.

Observations have shown that all people are different not only in appearance, but also in behavior and movements. For example, if you follow the behavior of students in the classroom, you can immediately notice the difference in the behavior, movements of each. Some have slow, correct movements, a noticeable calmness in their eyes, while others have sharp movements, fussiness in their eyes, but most of them show similar developmental results. What explains this difference in behavior? First of all, temperament, which manifests itself in any kind of activity (playing, working, educational, creative), in gait, gestures, in all behavior. Individual psychological characteristics of a person's personality, his temperament give a peculiar coloring to all activities and behavior.

Temperament is easy to determine by the speed of a person’s movements, by the pace of his speech, by the ability to quickly and easily get involved in work, by responsiveness to the feelings of other people, by the ability to get involved in business, while showing great perseverance and passion, by fussiness, by desire to communicate with comrades , by the speed of changing moods, by courage, and even by facial expression and voice timbre. The above examples lead to an understanding that temperament is a dynamic characteristic of a person and that the mental pace and rhythm, the speed of the emergence of feelings, their duration and stability, ingenuity, focus on certain contacts with objects and people, on a person’s interest in himself or herself depend on temperament. others.

Temperament is one of those psychological concepts that "everyone knows". Giving a description to our acquaintances, we now and then use the names of various temperaments - we say about one: "typical choleric", another we call "sanguine", the third - "phlegmatic", the fourth - "melancholic". Yes, and we usually refer to one of four categories.

It turns out that most people consider themselves choleric or sanguine. Phlegmatic people come across less often, and even in melancholy, as if ashamed, rarely anyone agrees to confess. Meanwhile, people of very different temperaments can achieve high achievements in the same kind of activity. If we take the largest writers, then A.I. Herzen was a typical sanguine person, I.A. Krylov - phlegmatic, A.S. Pushkin is a choleric, and N.V. Gogol is a melancholic. At about the same time, outstanding Russian commanders glorified themselves in the military field - choleric (according to the version, p. 417 - sanguine) A.V. Suvorov and phlegmatic M.I. Kutuzov. It is easy to attribute to one of the classical temperaments and literary heroes - the musketeers from the novels of A. Dumas père. (, p.207).

Acquaintance with the concept and typology of temperaments allows not only to satisfy cognitive interest. Knowledge in this area is necessary for the professional activities of a teacher when choosing an individual approach to the learning process, for managers at all levels when building tactics for business relationships with subordinates, when choosing a profession, as well as in professional selection, when people communicate with each other, when developing professional skills etc.

1. From the history of teachings about temperament

temperament psychological personality

The doctrine of temperament arose in antiquity. The word "temperament" in Latin means "proper ratio of parts"; the Greek word “krasis”, equal in meaning, was introduced by the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates (Y-IY centuries AD). He first defined the concept of "temperament" and described temperaments in more or less detail. By temperament, he understood the anatomical, physiological and psychological individual characteristics of a person. He, and then Galen, observing the individual characteristics of people's behavior, made an attempt to explain these features. According to the Hippocratic theory, the differences between people are determined by the ratio of the main types of fluids in their body. If they are mixed correctly, a person is healthy, if they are mixed incorrectly, they are sick. One of the fluids predominates, which determines the temperament of a person. According to Hippocrates, there are four such fluids: blood, two types of bile and mucus (or lymph). In sanguine people, blood predominates (lat. sanguis), in choleric people - yellow bile (lat. chole), in phlegmatic people - mucus (lat. pegma). And, finally, melancholics are people with an excess of black bile (Latin melanos chole). The names of temperaments have survived to this day.

Further development of the doctrine of temperament took place in the following directions.

The psychological characteristics of temperament expanded more and more. The Roman physician Galen (II century), unlike Hippocrates, characterizes the types of temperament along with physiological, psychological and even moral properties.

German philosopher I. Kant at the end of the 18th century. considers temperament only as mental properties. Until recently, the characteristic of temperament remained predominantly psychological. In this regard, the concept of types of temperament is changing. They are characterized by a proportion of not physiological, but mental properties. For Kant, this is the ratio of different feelings and different degrees of activity. He argued that in a sanguine person the main desire is the desire for pleasure, combined with a slight excitability of feelings and their short duration. He is fond of everything that pleases him. His inclinations are fickle, and one cannot rely too much on them. Trusting and gullible, he enjoys building projects but soon abandons them.

In the melancholic, the dominant inclination is the inclination towards sadness. Trifle offends him, everything seems to him that he is neglected. His desires are sad, his suffering seems unbearable and beyond all consolation.

The choleric temperament exhibits remarkable strength in action, energy and perseverance when under the influence of some passion. His passions instantly ignite from the slightest obstacle, and his pride, revenge, ambition, the strength of his feelings know no limits when his soul is under the influence of passion. He thinks little and acts quickly, because that is his will.

And, finally, according to Kant, feelings do not take hold of the phlegmatic quickly. He does not need to make great efforts on himself in order to maintain his composure. It is easier for him than for others to refrain from a quick decision in order to think it over before. He is difficult to be irritated, rarely complains, endures his sufferings patiently and is little indignant at the sufferings of others. (, p.208)

For Wundt (end of the 19th century), temperament is the ratio of speed and strength of “spiritual movements”. In the process of developing the doctrine of temperament, the characteristics of the four main types of temperament change. The idea of ​​their number is being revised. Starting with Kant, they began to distinguish the properties of temperament from other individual mental properties (the nature of the personality), although strict criteria for such a distinction were not proposed.

In the history of teachings about temperament, the understanding of the physiological foundations of temperament has changed. There were two main directions: explanation of temperament types by the ratio of the activity of the endocrine glands (German psychologist Kretschmer, American Sheldon), or by the ratio of the properties of the nervous system (I.P. Pavlov) (, pp. 407-408).

Since ancient times, researchers, observing a significant variety of behavior, coinciding with differences in physique and physiological functions, have tried to streamline them, somehow group them. Thus, a variety of typologies of temperaments arose. Of greatest interest are those in which the properties of temperament, understood as hereditary or innate, were associated with individual differences in physique. These typologies are called constitutional typologies. So the typology proposed by E. Kretschmer, who in 1921 published his famous work “Body Structure and Character”, was most widely used. His main idea was that people with a certain type of constitution have certain mental characteristics. He carried out many measurements of body parts, which allowed him to distinguish 4 constitutional types (,,):

Leptosomatic (asthenic type) - characterized by a fragile physique, high growth, flat chest. The shoulders are narrow, the lower limbs are long and thin.

Picnic - a person with pronounced adipose tissue, excessively obese. characterized by small or medium stature, a spreading body with a large belly and a round head on a short neck.

Athletic - a person with well-developed muscles, a strong physique, characterized by high or medium height, broad shoulders, narrow hips.

Dysplastic - people with a shapeless, irregular structure. Individuals of this type are characterized by various body deformities (for example, excessive growth, disproportionate physique).

With these types of body structure, Kretschmer correlates 3 selected types of temperament, which he calls: schizothymic, ixothymic and cyclothymic. The schizothymic has an asthenic physique, he is closed, prone to fluctuations in emotions, stubborn, little susceptible to changes in attitudes and views, hardly adapts to the environment. In contrast, the ixothymic has an athletic physique. This is a calm, little impressionable person with restrained gestures and facial expressions, with low flexibility of thinking, often petty. The picnic physique is cyclothymic, his emotions fluctuate between joy and sadness, he easily contacts people and is realistic in his views,.

The theory of E. Kretschmer was very common in Europe, and in the USA the concept of temperament by W. Sheldon, formulated in the 40s of the last century, gained popularity. Sheldon's views are also based on the assumption that the body and temperament are 2 human parameters related to each other. The structure of the body determines the temperament, which is its function. W. Sheldon proceeded from the hypothesis of the existence of basic body types, describing which he borrowed terms from embryology. They distinguished 3 types (, , ):

Endomorphic (mainly internal organs are formed from the endoderm);

Mesomorphic (muscle tissue is formed from the mesoderm);

Ectomorphic (skin and nervous tissue develop from the ectoderm).

At the same time, people with an endomorphic type are characterized by a relatively weak physique with an excess of adipose tissue; the mesomorphic type tends to have a slender and strong body, great physical stability and strength; and ectomorphic - a fragile body, a flat chest, long thin limbs with weak muscles.

According to W. Sheldon, these types of physiques correspond to certain types of temperaments, named by him depending on the functions of certain organs of the body: viscerotonia (lat. viscera- “insides”), somatotonia (Greek soma - “body”) and cerebrotonia (lat. cerebrum - "brain").

Types of temperament (according to W. Sheldon)
Viscerotonia	Somatotonia	Cerebrotonia
Relaxation in posture and movement. Love for comfort. Slow response. Passion for food. Socialization of food needs. Pleasure from the process of digestion. Love for companies, friendly outpourings Sociophilia (love for social life). Kindness to everyone. Thirst for love and approval of others. Orientation to others. Emotional balance. Tolerance. Serene contentment. Good dream. Lack of explosive emotions and actions. Softness, ease of handling and outward expression of feelings. Sociability and relaxation under the influence of alcohol. The need for people in difficult times. Focused on children and families.	Confidence in posture and movement. Propensity for physical activity. Energy. Need for movement and pleasure from it. The need for dominance. Risk appetite in the game of chance. Decisive manner. Bravery. Strong aggressiveness. Psychological insensitivity. Claustrophobia (fear of closed spaces). Lack of compassion. Spartan pain endurance. Noisy behavior. Appearance corresponds to older age. Objective and broad thinking, directed outward. Self-confidence, aggressiveness under the influence of alcohol. The need for action in difficult times. Orientation towards youth activities.	Inhibition in movements, stiffness in posture. Excessive physiological reactivity. Increased rate of reactions. A tendency to seclusion. Disposition to reasoning, exclusive attention. secret feelings, emotional retardation. Self-control of facial expressions. Social phobia (fear of social contacts). Inhibition in communication. Avoidance of standard actions. Agrophobia (fear of open space). Unpredictability of attitudes (behavior). Excessive sensitivity to pain. Poor sleep, chronic fatigue. Youthful vivacity and subjective thinking. Concentrated, hidden and subjective thinking. Resistance to the action of alcohol and other repressants. The need for solitude in difficult times. Orientation towards old age.

In psychological science, most constitutional concepts have become the object of sharp criticism. The main drawback of such theories is that they underestimate, and sometimes simply openly ignore, the role of the environment and social conditions in the formation of the individual's mental properties.

Characteristics of temperament, such as the socialization of food needs, love of company and friendly outpourings, tolerance and lack of compassion, cannot be considered hereditary properties of the same order as physique. It is known that such properties, arising on the basis of certain anatomical and physiological characteristics of the individual, are formed under the influence of education and the social environment (,,).

Hormonal theories of temperament one-sidedly exaggerate the role of the endocrine glands and are unable to explain the adaptation of temperament to the requirements of activity (, p. 409).

In fact, the dependence of the course of mental processes and human behavior on the functioning of the nervous system, which performs a dominant and controlling role in the body, has long been known. The theory of the connection of some general properties of nervous processes with types of temperament was proposed by I.P. Pavlov and was developed and experimentally confirmed in the works of his followers.

The most successful attempt to connect temperament with the characteristics of the human body was made by the Russian physiologist I.P. Pavlov, who discovered the properties of higher nervous activity. In Pavlov's laboratories, where conditioned reflexes were studied on dogs, it was found that in different animals conditioned reflexes are formed in different ways: in some they are formed quickly and persist for a long time, while in others, on the contrary, slowly and fade quickly; Some animals can endure heavy loads under strong stimuli, while others fall into a state of inhibition under the same conditions. (, p.208-209)

Based on the results of research, Pavlov showed that each of the four temperaments is based on one or another ratio of basic properties, which was called the type of higher nervous activity. Unlike his predecessors, he took for research not the external structure of the body, as the German psychiatrist Kretschmer did, and not the structure of the vessels (P.F. Lesgaft), but the body as a whole and isolated the brain in it (, p. 307).

The teachings of I.P. Pavlova. They identified three main properties of the nervous system:

1) the strength of the process of excitation and inhibition, depending on the performance of nerve cells;

2) the balance of the nervous system, i.e. the degree of compliance of the excitation force with the braking force (or their balance);

3) mobility of nervous processes, i.e. the rate of change of excitation by inhibition and vice versa.

The strength of excitation reflects the performance of the nerve cell. It manifests itself in functional endurance, i.e. in the ability to withstand prolonged or short-term, but strong excitation, without passing into the opposite state of inhibition.

The strength of inhibition is understood as the functional performance of the nerve cell in the implementation of inhibition and is manifested in the ability to form various inhibitory conditioned reactions, such as extinction and differentiation.

Speaking about the balance of nervous processes, I.P. Pavlov had in mind the balance of the processes of excitation and inhibition. The ratio of the strength of both processes decides whether a given individual is balanced or unbalanced when the strength of one process exceeds that of the other.

The mobility of nervous processes is manifested in the rapidity of the transition of one nervous process to another. The mobility of nervous processes is manifested in the ability to change behavior in accordance with changing living conditions. The measure of this property of the nervous system is the speed of transition from one action to another, from a passive state to an active state, and vice versa. The opposite of mobility is the inertness of nervous processes. The nervous system is the more inert the more time or effort is required to move from one process to another (, p.384).

I.P. Pavlov found that the temperament of each animal does not depend on one of the properties, but on their combination. Such a combination of the properties of the nervous system, which determines both the individual characteristics of conditioned reflex activity and temperament, he called the type of the nervous system, or the type of nervous activity. (, p. 408).

I.P. Pavlov distinguished 4 main types of the nervous system (,,):

1) strong, balanced, mobile (“alive” according to I.P. Pavlov - sanguine temperament);

2) strong, balanced, inert ("calm" according to I.P. Pavlov - phlegmatic temperament);

3) a strong, unbalanced type with a predominance of the excitation process (“unrestrained” type, according to I.P. Pavlov - choleric temperament);

4) weak type (“weak”, according to I.P. Pavlov - melancholic temperament).

Identified I.P. Pavlov, the main combinations of properties and types of the nervous system on which temperament depends are common in humans and animals. Therefore, they received the name of general types. Thus, the physiological basis of temperament is the general type of the nervous system (, p. 408). Pavlov connected the general types of the nervous system with the traditional types of temperament (choleric, sanguine, phlegmatic and melancholic), although he understood that there must be other properties of the nervous system, and other combinations of them, and, consequently, other types of temperament.

So, I.P. Pavlov understood the type of the nervous system as innate, relatively weakly subject to changes under the influence of the environment and upbringing (, p. 386).

The type of nervous system is a concept used by a physiologist, while a psychologist uses the term temperament. In essence, these are aspects of the same phenomenon. It is in this sense that, following I.P. Pavlov to say that the temperament of a person is nothing but a mental manifestation of the type of the higher nervous system.

In the 1950s, laboratory studies of the behavior of adults were undertaken. In the works of B.M. Teplova and V.D. Nebylitsyn's ideas about the properties of the nervous system were expanded, two new properties of nervous processes were discovered: lability and dynamism. The dynamism of nervous processes is a property that determines the dynamism of excitation or the dynamism of inhibition (the ease and speed of the formation of positive and inhibitory conditioned reflexes), the lability of nervous processes is a property that determines the rate of occurrence and termination of nervous processes (excitatory or inhibitory process) ,,.

The role of Pavlov's research in the development of modern science is extremely great. However, his discovery of the properties of the nervous system and the typology of the nervous system developed on this basis served as the basis for his assertion that all human behavior, like animal behavior, can be explained from the position of physiology. This point of view is strong in our time and is often found among physiologists and doctors, but it is not true. Human behavior is very complex and is determined not only by innate characteristics, but also by the conditions of the social situation, as well as by the characteristics of education.

Unlike I.P. Pavlov found other combinations of properties of the nervous system. For example, in addition to the unbalanced type with a predominance of excitation, there is an unbalanced type with a predominance of inhibition, etc.

The mental properties of temperament and the physiological properties of the nervous system are closely interrelated. The biological meaning of this relationship lies in the fact that with its help the most subtle, clear and timely adaptation to the environment is achieved. Where the adaptive function of any property of the nervous system cannot be carried out with the help of one property of temperament inherent in it, it is carried out with the help of another property of temperament inherent in it, which compensates for the first. For example, low performance of a weak type can sometimes be compensated for by a long absence of emotional satiety.

The origin of the types of the nervous system and temperament and its change. I.P. Pavlov called the general type of the nervous system the genotype, that is, the hereditary type. This is confirmed in experiments on animal selection and in the study of identical and fraternal twins in humans brought up in different families. Despite this, certain properties of temperament change within certain limits due to the conditions of life and upbringing (especially in early childhood), due to illnesses, under the influence of living conditions and (in adolescence and even adulthood) depending on the psychological conflicts experienced. For example, under parental overprotection, a child can grow up to be a cowardly, indecisive, insecure person, touchy to the extreme and vulnerable to an extreme degree.

The maturation of temperament should be distinguished from such changes in the properties of temperament. The type of temperament is not formed immediately, with all its characteristic properties. The general patterns of the maturation of the nervous system leave their mark on the maturation of the type of temperament. For example, a feature of the nervous system in preschool and school age is its weakness and imbalance, which leaves an imprint on the properties of temperament. Some properties of temperament, depending on the type of nervous system, are not yet sufficiently manifested at this age, they appear somewhat later, in fact already at senior school age.

The main properties of a certain type of temperament appear gradually, with age, depending on the maturation of the nervous system. This process is called maturation of temperament,.

The concept of temperament

In nature, there are no absolutely identical human personalities. ost - the personality of each person is unique. However, a person is not born as an already established personality. He becomes it gradually. But even before a person becomes a person, he has individual characteristics of the psyche. The latter are very conservative and stable. Changing much more slowly than the personality traits known to us, they form in each person a kind of psychological soil, on which personality traits inherent only to this person subsequently grow. This means that the child's psyche is not like a smooth board where you can write any patterns, and that in the process of raising and teaching a child, one must rely on the properties that he has from birth. Such stable and inherent in a person from birth properties are the properties of temperament (, p. 405). The properties of temperament include, first of all, innate and individually peculiar mental properties. The properties of temperament are those natural properties that determine the dynamic side of mental activity (, p. 406). The nature of the course of mental activity depends on temperament, namely:

1) the speed of occurrence of mental processes and their stability (for example, the speed of perception, the speed of the mind, the duration of concentration of attention);

2) mental tempo and rhythm;

3) the intensity of mental processes (for example, the strength of emotions, the activity of the will);

4) the orientation of mental activity towards some specific objects (for example, a person’s constant desire for contacts with new people, for new impressions of reality, or a person’s appeal to himself, to his ideas and images).

The dynamics of mental activity also depends on motives and mental states. Any person, regardless of the characteristics of his temperament, with interest, works more energetically and faster than without it. For any person, a joyful event causes a rise in mental and physical strength, and misfortune causes their fall.

But the properties of temperament, in contrast to motives and mental states, manifest themselves in him in the same way. For example, if there is high anxiety as a property of temperament, the student is worried before passing the exam, shows anxiety before the lesson during teaching practice, is in anxious anticipation of starting at competitions, etc. Temperament manifests itself in a person in various situations: in how he communicates with people, how he rejoices and is upset, how he works and rests. The properties of temperament are the most stable and constant in comparison with other mental characteristics of a person (, p. 406). The specificity of temperament also lies in the fact that the various properties of the temperament of a given person are not accidentally combined with each other, but are naturally interconnected, forming a certain organization that characterizes the type of temperament.

Thus, temperament should be understood as individually peculiar properties of the psyche that determine the dynamics of a person’s mental activity, which are equally manifested in a variety of activities, regardless of its content, goals, motives, remain constant in adulthood and in their mutual connection characterize the type of temperament. (, c. 407; . p. 387). In this definition, the central place is occupied by the properties of temperament, their constancy throughout life and under various circumstances, while the dynamics of mental activity, determined by these properties, recede somewhat into the background. The definition does not contain indications of the origin of temperament (congenital or acquired properties of the psyche).

There are several other definitions of temperament and its properties.

Temperament is a set of properties that characterize the dynamic features of the course of mental processes and human behavior, their strength, speed, occurrence, cessation and change (, P. 394). In this definition, the main emphasis is placed on the dynamic features of the course of mental processes and behavior, it contains an indication of these features (strength, speed, etc.), but does not indicate what significance these features have for a person.

Temperament is a mental property of a person, characterized by the dynamics of the course of mental processes (p. 167). In this source, in the definition of temperament, emphasis is placed on temperament as a mental property of a person, and then a transition is made to the dynamics of the course of mental processes as the main characteristic of temperament.

Temperament is the innate characteristics of a person that determine the dynamic characteristics of the intensity and speed of response, the degree of emotional excitability and balance, the features of adaptation to the environment (, C.287). This definition draws attention to the genetically determined nature of temperament, the relationship of temperament with the characteristics of adaptation to the environment. The definition does not contain the terms “dynamics of mental processes”, “mental properties”, it refers to the characteristics of the response and its properties (intensity, speed) without specifying the nature of this response. that we are talking about mental processes.

Temperament is nothing more than the most general characteristic of the impulse-dynamic side of human behavior, expressed mainly by the properties of nervous activity.

In this definition, the main emphasis is shifted to human behavior and its characteristics, due to the properties of nervous activity.

When considering Nemov R.S. temperament as a psychobiological category with reference to the works of V.M. Rusalov, he expresses the point of view that the properties of temperament are not completely either innate or dependent on the environment. He believes that the genetically predetermined properties of temperament are transformed in the process of interaction with the environment, acquiring a new quality.

3. Temperament properties that determine psychological x a characterization of temperament types

Temperament as a dynamic characteristic of a person's mental activity has its own properties that positively or negatively affect its manifestations.

There are such basic properties of temperament as sensitivity, reactivity, plasticity, rigidity, resistance, extraversion and introversion,.

Sensitivity is a measure of sensitivity to the phenomena of reality to which a person is related. It is determined by what is the strength of the smallest impacts necessary for the occurrence of any mental reaction of a person, and what is the rate of occurrence of this reaction.

The famous psychologist B.G. Ananiev believed that sensitivity is associated with orienting reflex activity and is part of the structure of temperament. There is reason to believe that there are not only separate varieties of sensitivity as potential properties of individual analyzers, but also a general way of sensitivity for a particular person, which is a property of the sensory organization of a person as a whole.

Sensitivity, in his opinion, is a general, relatively stable personality trait in which the type of the nervous system is expressed and which plays its role in a person's abilities for various types of activity.

Reactivity is a feature of a person's reaction to a variety of stimuli, which manifests itself in the pace, strength and form of the response, and most clearly in emotional susceptibility, and is reflected in a person's attitude to the surrounding reality and to himself. It is determined by the degree of involuntary reactions to external or internal influences of the same strength (critical remark, offensive word, threat, sharp and unexpected sound),.

Activity. It is determined by the degree of activity (energy) with which a person influences the outside world and overcomes obstacles in the implementation of goals. This includes purposefulness and perseverance in achieving the goal, concentration of attention in long-term work, etc.

The ratio of reactivity and activity. It is determined by what a person’s activity depends to a greater extent: on random external or internal circumstances (on mood, desire, random events) or on the goals, intentions, aspirations, beliefs of a person.

Rate of reactions. They are determined by the speed of various mental reactions and processes: the speed of movements, the pace of speech, resourcefulness, the speed of memorization, the speed of the mind.

Plasticity and its opposite quality - rigidity. We judge this property by how easily and flexibly a person adapts to external influences (plasticity) or, conversely, how inert and inert his behavior, habits, judgments (rigidity).

Plasticity is manifested in the rapid adaptation to circumstances that change. Due to the plasticity of mental activity, the features of higher nervous activity are rebuilt or compensated. Weakness, imbalance or lack of mobility of the type of the nervous system under appropriate conditions of life and upbringing can acquire positive qualities.

Rigidity - the difficulty or inability to rebuild when performing tasks, depending on the circumstances. In cognitive activity, rigidity is manifested in a slow change in ideas about life and activity. In emotional life - in stiffness, lethargy, immobility of feelings. In behavior - in inflexibility, inertia of motives for behavior and moral and ethical actions, with all the evidence of their inexpediency,,.

Extraversion and its opposite quality - introversion. They are determined by what the reactions and activities of a person mainly depend on - from external impressions that arise at the moment (extroversion) or from images, ideas, thoughts related to the past and future (introversion). It is believed that extraversion and introversion as properties of temperament are a manifestation of the dynamic, and not the content, aspects of the personality.

Extroverts are characterized by the strength and mobility of nervous processes and, in connection with this, impulsiveness, flexibility of behavior, and initiative. An introvert is dominated by weakness and inertia of nervous processes, isolation, a tendency to introspection, and therefore difficulties may arise in social adaptation,,.

Emotional excitability. It is determined by how weak the impact is necessary for the occurrence of an emotional reaction and at what speed it occurs.

4. Temperament types

Sanguine temperament characterizes a person of a very cheerful disposition. He appears as an optimist, full of hope, a humorist, a joker, a joker. A sanguine person is a person with increased reactivity, but at the same time his activity and reactivity are balanced. He vividly, excitedly responds to everything that attracts his attention, has a lively facial expression and expressive movements. For an insignificant reason, he laughs, and an insignificant fact can make him angry. It is easy to guess his mood, attitude to an object or person by his face. He has a high threshold of sensitivity, so he does not notice very weak sounds and light stimuli. He quickly ignites, but cools down just as quickly, loses interest in what, until recently, he was very worried about and attracted to himself. The sanguine is able to quickly concentrate, disciplined, if desired, can restrain the manifestation of his feelings and involuntary reactions. Intense mental or physical work quickly tires him,.

He is characterized by quick movements, flexibility of mind, resourcefulness, a fast pace of speech, a quick inclusion in a new job. High plasticity is manifested in the variability of feelings, moods, interests and aspirations. Sanguine easily converges with new people, quickly gets used to new requirements and environment. Effortlessly not only switches from one job to another, but also retrains, mastering new skills. As a rule, he responds more to external impressions than to subjective images and ideas about the past and future, an extrovert.

Sanguine promises a lot, but does not always keep his promises. He easily and with pleasure enters into contacts with strangers, is a good conversationalist, all people are his friends. He is distinguished by kindness, willingness to help. With proper upbringing, a sanguine person is distinguished by a highly developed sense of collectivism, responsiveness, an active attitude to educational work, work and social life. Under adverse conditions, when there is no systematic, purposeful education, a sanguine person may show a frivolous, carefree and careless attitude to business, scattered, inability and unwillingness to bring things to the end, a frivolous attitude to learning, work, other people, overestimation of oneself and one's capabilities. .

The choleric temperament of activity characterizes a quick-tempered person. They say about such a person that he is too hot, unrestrained. At the same time, such an individual quickly cools down and calms down if they give way to him, go towards him. His movements are jerky, but short.

Like the sanguine, the choleric is characterized by low sensitivity, high reactivity and activity. But in a choleric person, reactivity clearly prevails over activity, so he is unbridled, unrestrained, impatient, quick-tempered. He is less plastic and more inert than the sanguine. Hence - greater stability of aspirations and interests, greater perseverance, difficulties in switching attention are possible, he is rather an extrovert,.

The phlegmatic temperament of activity refers to a cold-blooded person. It expresses rather a tendency to inactivity than to intense, active work. Such a person slowly comes into a state of excitement, but for a long time. This replaces the slowness of his entry into work. He has a strong, balanced, but inert nervous system.

The phlegmatic person has a high activity, significantly prevailing over low reactivity, low sensitivity and emotionality. It is difficult to make him laugh and sad - when they laugh loudly around him, he can remain unperturbed. When in big trouble, he stays calm. Usually he has poor facial expressions, movements are inexpressive and slow, just like speech. He is unresourceful, with difficulty shifting attention and adapting to a new environment, slowly rebuilding skills and habits. At the same time, he is energetic and efficient. Differs in patience, endurance, self-control. As a rule, he finds it difficult to meet new people, weakly responds to external impressions, an introvert.

With proper upbringing, a phlegmatic person easily develops such traits as perseverance, efficiency, perseverance. But in adverse circumstances, he may develop lethargy, inertia, passivity, laziness. Sometimes a person of this temperament can develop an indifferent, indifferent attitude towards work, the surrounding life, people and even himself.

The melancholy temperament of activity, according to Kant, is characteristic of a person of the opposite, mostly gloomy mood. Such a person usually lives a complex and intense inner life, attaches great importance to everything that concerns him, has increased anxiety and a vulnerable soul. Such a person is often restrained and especially controls himself when making promises. He never promises what he is unable to do, he suffers greatly from the fact that he cannot fulfill this promise, even if his fulfillment directly depends little on himself.

Melancholic - a person with high sensitivity and low reactivity. Increased sensitivity with great inertia leads to the fact that an insignificant occasion can cause tears in him, he is overly touchy, painfully sensitive. His facial expressions and movements are inexpressive, his voice is quiet, his movements are poor. Usually he is insecure, timid, the slightest difficulty makes him give up. The melancholic is not energetic, unpersistent, gets tired easily and has little work capacity. It has an inherent easily distracted and unstable attention and a slow pace of all mental processes. Most melancholics are introverts.

In favorable conditions, with proper education, the most valuable qualities of a melancholic personality are revealed. His impressionability, subtle emotional sensitivity, acute susceptibility to the world around him allow him to achieve great success in art - music, drawing, poetry. Melancholic people are often distinguished by softness, tact, delicacy and responsiveness: whoever is vulnerable himself usually subtly feels the pain that he causes to other people,. Each of the presented types of temperament in itself is neither good nor bad (if you do not connect temperament and character). Manifested in the dynamic features of the psyche and human behavior, each type of temperament can have advantages and disadvantages. People of sanguine temperament have a quick reaction, easily and quickly adapt to changing conditions of life, have increased efficiency, especially in the initial period of work, but at the end they reduce efficiency due to rapid fatigue and a drop in interest. On the contrary, those who are characterized by a temperament of the melancholic type are distinguished by a slow entry into work, but also a greater endurance. Their performance is usually higher in the middle or towards the end of work, and not at the beginning. In general, the productivity and quality of work for sanguine and melancholic people are approximately the same, and the differences mainly relate only to the dynamics of work in its different periods.

The choleric temperament has the merit of concentrating considerable efforts in a short space of time. But during long-term work, a person with such a temperament does not always have enough endurance. Phlegmatic people, on the contrary, are not able to quickly assemble and concentrate their efforts, but instead they have the valuable ability to work long and hard to achieve their goal. The type of human temperament must be taken into account where the work makes special demands on the specified dynamic features of activity.

"Strong" and "weak" sides of each type of temperament in terms of properties are shown in the table.

temperament type	"Strengths"	"Weaknesses.
sanguine	energetic; workable; actively gets down to business; easily switches from one type of activity to another; quickly focuses disciplined; if necessary, restrains the manifestation of their feelings and involuntary reactions; easily retrained; mental flexibility; resourcefulness; actively contacts easy to get along with people.	with long and monotonous work loses interest in the case; in some situations, feelings may be inadequately manifested.
Phlegmatic person	balanced; imperturbable; remains calm in case of big troubles; it is difficult to piss off, hurt emotionally; possesses endurance and self-control; in activity is thorough, persistent, thought out; brings the work started to the end; energetic; workable; patient;	slow; unresourceful with difficulty switches attention and adapts to a new environment; inert; hard to get along with people.
	energetic; enthusiastically gets down to business; works with enthusiasm, overcoming difficulties.	unbridled; impatient; unrestrained; hot-tempered; inert; unbalanced; in relation to people allows harshness, irritability, emotional restraint; conflict; a sharp change of mood, including in activity.
melancholic	familiar and calm environment works very productively.	not energetic; passive; fickle; easily tired; little efficient; indecisive; not self-confident; avoids communication with unfamiliar, new people; shows awkwardness in a new environment; everything new, unusual causes a state of inhibition; overly touchy; painfully sensitive; easily vulnerable; hard to endure grief, resentment; Prolonged and intense stress causes slow activity.

E.I. Rogov concludes that the type of temperament in a person is innate, and it has not yet been fully clarified on what properties of his innate organization it depends. However, it follows from Krutetsky's comments that raising a person (or his mistakes) with the same temperament can lead to different consequences in shaping him as a person.

4. The role of temperament in labor and educational activities of a person

Temperament and activity

The dynamic traits of a person's personality appear not only outside our manner of behavior, not only in movements - they are also manifested in the mental sphere, in the sphere of motivation, in general performance. Naturally, the peculiarities of temperament affect in training sessions and in work activities. But the main thing is that differences in temperaments are differences not in the level of the possibility of the psyche, but in the originality of its manifestations.

The absence of correlation between the level of achievements was established, i.e. the end result of actions, and the characteristics of temperament, if the activity takes place in conditions that can be defined as normal. Thus, regardless of the degree of mobility or reactivity of the individual in a normal, non-stressful situation, the results of activity will in principle be the same, since the level of achievement will depend mainly on other factors, in particular on the level of motivation and abilities. At the same time, studies that establish this pattern show that, depending on temperament, the way the activity itself is carried out changes.

Depending on the characteristics of temperament, people differ not in the end result of actions, but in the way they achieve results. Studies have been conducted in order to establish the relationship between the way of performing actions and the characteristics of temperament. In these studies, an individual style of activity was considered as a way to achieve results or a way to solve a certain problem, mainly due to the type of nervous system. The results of studies by the vast majority of authors, regardless of the characteristics of the groups under study and experimental situations in which the typical way of performing actions for these individuals was studied, show that it is the type of nervous processes that has a significant impact on the formation of a certain style of activity.

A sanguine person should be constantly assigned new, if possible, interesting tasks that require concentration and tension from him. It is necessary to constantly include his active activity and systematically encourage his efforts.

The phlegmatic person needs to be involved in vigorous activity and interested. It requires systematic attention. It cannot be switched from one task to another. In relation to the melancholic, not only harshness, rudeness, but also simply an elevated tone, irony are unacceptable. He requires special attention, you should praise him in time for his successes, determination and ox. A negative assessment should be used as carefully as possible, mitigating its negative effect in every possible way. Melancholic - the most sensitive and vulnerable type with him, you must be extremely soft and friendly.

It depends on temperament how a person implements his actions, but their content does not depend on it. Temperament is manifested in the features of the course of mental processes. Influencing the speed of recollection and the strength of memorization, the fluency of mental operations, the stability and switchability of attention.

Temperament and individual style of activity

Activities - labor, educational, play - put forward requirements not only for knowledge and the level of mental and emotional-volitional development of a person, but also for the typological features of the nervous system, and therefore, for his temperament. A certain combination of temperament properties, manifested in the cognitive processes, actions and communication of a person, determines his individual style of activity. It is a system of temperament-dependent dynamic features of activity, which contains work methods typical for a given person,.

The individual style of activity can be considered as the result of the adaptation of the innate properties of the nervous system and the characteristics of the human body to the conditions of the activity performed. This device should provide the best results in the activity at the lowest cost.

What we, when observing a person, perceive as signs of his temperament (various movements, reactions, forms of behavior) is often a reflection not so much of temperament as of an individual style of activity, the features of which may coincide and diverge from temperament.

The core of the individual style of activity determines the complex of properties of the nervous system that a person has. Among those features that relate to the very individual style of activity, two groups can be distinguished:

1. Acquired in experience and having a compensatory nature in relation to the shortcomings of the individual properties of the human nervous system.

2. Facilitating the maximum use of human inclinations and abilities, including the beneficial properties of the nervous system.

Temperament and personality

Personality and temperament are interconnected in such a way that temperament acts as a common basis for many other personal properties, primarily character. However, it determines only the dynamic manifestations of the corresponding personal properties.

Such personality traits as impressionability, emotionality, impulsiveness and anxiety depend on temperament. Impressibility is the strength of the impact on a person of various stimuli, the time they are stored in memory and the strength of the reaction to them. The same stimuli have a greater effect on an impressionable person than on an insufficiently impressionable one. An impressionable person, in addition, remembers the corresponding impacts longer and retains a reaction to them longer. Yes, and the strength of the corresponding reaction is much greater than that of a less impressionable individual.

Emotionality is the speed and depth of a person's emotional reaction to certain events. An emotional person attaches great importance to what is happening to him and around him. Much more than an unemotional person, he has developed all kinds of bodily reactions associated with emotions. An emotional individual is one who is almost never calm, constantly in the grip of any emotions, in a state of increased excitement or, conversely, depression.

Impulsivity is manifested in the lack of restraint of reactions, in their spontaneity and appearance even before a person has time to think about the current situation and make a reasonable decision about how to act in it. An impulsive person first reacts, and then thinks if he did the right thing; often regrets premature and wrong reactions.

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General concept of temperament. Definition of temperament. The history of ideas about temperament. Types, properties, physiological bases of temperament. Psychological characteristics of temperaments. Temperament and communication. Temperament and character.

abstract, added 11/13/2003


Properties of temperament, characteristics of its types. Features of personality types - extraversion and introversion, their differences from temperament types. Questioning of the control group based on the methods of Laney M., G. Eysenck's questionnaire for determining the type of temperament.

term paper, added 05/05/2010


The subject of psychodiagnostics. Methods of psychodiagnostics and their classification. The concept of temperament. Psychological characteristics of temperament types. The role of temperament in human activity. Temperament as a factor of activity. Thinking.

The founder of the doctrine of the types of temperament is the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates (5th century BC). Hippocrates argued that people differ in the ratio of the four main "juices of the body" - blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile, which are part of it. Each liquid has special properties and a special purpose. Based on this theory, the most famous doctor of antiquity after Hippocrates, Claudius Galen (II century BC), developed the first typology of temperaments. According to the teachings of Galen, the type of temperament depends on which of the "juices" prevails in the human body. He singled out types of temperament, the names of which have survived to our time and are widely known: sanguine (from Latin sanguis - blood), phlegmatic (from Greek phlegm - phlegm), choleric (from Greek chole - bile) and melancholic (from Greek melas chole - black bile). This fantastic concept has had a huge impact on scientists for many centuries.

Other scientists tried to explain temperament by the features of a person's appearance. The most widespread typology was E. Kretschmer (1921), the main idea of ​​which is that people with a certain body type have certain mental characteristics.

In the USA in the 40s. 20th century W. Sheldon's concept of temperament, according to which the body and temperament are two interconnected parameters of a person, has gained great popularity. According to the author, the structure of the body determines the temperament, which is its function.

K. Jung (1923) proposed a peculiar solution to the problem. He identified two main types of behavior. The first type is extroverted. People of this type are adventurous, open to others, sociable. The second type is introverted. People of this type are characterized by shyness, isolation, the desire to avoid risk and social interactions. According to Jung, the predominance of extraversion is observed in choleric and sanguine people, and the dominance of introversion in melancholic and phlegmatic people.

The scientific doctrine of temperaments was created by I.P. Pavlov. He linked temperament with the functioning of the central nervous system. In the study of higher nervous activity, he discovered its three main properties.

1. Power - the ability to withstand intense loads: long work, stress, etc. Depending on this, two types of it were distinguished: strong and weak.

I.P. Pavlov distinguished between the force of excitation and the force of inhibition, considering them to be two independent properties of the nervous system. The strength of excitation shows the efficiency of the nerve cell. It manifests itself in endurance, i.e. in the ability of the cell to withstand prolonged or short-term, but strong excitation, without passing into the opposite state of inhibition. People with high rates of excitation strength are distinguished by high efficiency, courage, risk appetite, ability to overcome difficulties and failures in work; persistent and stubborn in achieving their goals, striving for independence, easily experiencing failures.

The force of inhibition is understood as the functional performance of the nervous system during the implementation of inhibition. This feature is manifested in restraint in actions, conversation; in the ability to keep a secret, to follow the rules; in composure in anticipation of danger, slowness in decision-making; in thorough chewing of food during meals; in a good dream.

Weakness nervous processes is characterized by the inability of nerve cells to withstand prolonged and concentrated excitation and inhibition. Under the action of very strong stimuli, nerve cells quickly pass into a state of protective inhibition. Thus, in a weak nervous system, nerve cells are characterized by low efficiency, their energy is quickly depleted. But on the other hand, a weak nervous system has great sensitivity: even to weak stimuli, it gives an appropriate reaction.

Weakness of the nervous system is not a negative property. A strong nervous system copes more successfully with some life tasks (for example, in work associated with large and unexpected loads). A weak nervous system copes more successfully with others (for example, in conditions of monotonous work). A weak nervous system is a highly sensitive nervous system, and this is its advantage over a strong one.

2. Balance - is determined by the ratio of the strength of the processes of excitation and inhibition. Depending on this, two types of the nervous system and the corresponding types of temperament are distinguished: balanced and unbalanced. If the strength of one process exceeds the strength of another, a person becomes either too easily excitable or too calm. A balanced person behaves collectedly in the most stressful environment. Without difficulty, he suppresses unnecessary and inadequate desires, drives away extraneous thoughts. Works evenly, without random ups and downs.

3. Mobility - manifested in the speed of transition of one nervous process to another. The mobility of nervous processes is manifested in the ability to change behavior in accordance with changing living conditions. The measure of this property of the nervous system is the speed of transition from one action to another, from a passive state to an active state, and vice versa. In accordance with this, two types of the nervous system were distinguished: mobile and inert. They differ in the speed of the corresponding nervous processes and the corresponding external or internal actions (thinking, memory, imagination, etc.). The nervous system becomes more inert the more time or effort it takes to move from one process to another. For example, a student with a mobile nervous system, other things being equal, will solve a problem faster than a child with an inert nervous system.

Depending on the ratio of these processes, four types of higher nervous activity and the corresponding temperaments were distinguished: sanguine- strong balanced mobile; phlegmatic- strong balanced inert; choleric- strong unbalanced; melancholic- weak type.

Temperament types

The division of people into four types of temperament is very conditional. Only a few are pure representatives of these types; in the majority, there is a combination of individual features of one temperament with some features of another. One and the same person in different situations and in relation to different spheres of life and activity can reveal features of different temperaments. So, for example, seeing how slowly a student does homework, helps his mother, you might think that he is phlegmatic. But, watching him at the stadium at the moment when the team he supports scores a goal, you can decide that he is a choleric. In the classroom, the same student will seem sanguine. But at the blackboard he can sometimes be mistaken for a melancholic. However, if students with different temperaments are observed under the same conditions, their behavior will be even more unequal. It is possible to attribute a person's temperament to one or another type only according to the prevailing features.

Sanguine temperament characterized by increased reactivity and activity, due to which it responds vividly to everything new. He has a balanced ratio of activity and reactivity, he can restrain his reactions and manifestations of feelings. The rate of reactions is quite high, which is manifested in rapid movements, the rate of speech, thinking and other mental processes. This person is very energetic and efficient, he actively takes up a new business and can work for a long time without getting tired. Productive in dynamic and varied work. Able to quickly focus his attention, he is characterized by flexibility of mind, resourcefulness. The sanguine person is extroverted, quickly adapts to changing situations, finds contact with other people, is sociable, quickly switches from one type of activity to another. Emotionally unstable, easily amenable to feelings, they are usually not strong and shallow. Inclined to positive emotions.

At the core choleric temperament lies an unbalanced type of nervous system. The choleric, as well as the sanguine, is characterized by high reactivity and activity, a fast pace of reactions, but reactivity prevails over activity. He is distinguished by increased excitability, imbalance, which manifests itself in communication and activity: he enthusiastically gets down to business, takes the initiative, but the energy is quickly depleted. He is less plastic and more inert than the sanguine. It is difficult for a choleric person to do activities that require smooth movements, a calm, slow pace, he often shows impatience, sharpness of movements, impetuousness. In dealing with people, the choleric is quick-tempered, unrestrained, irritable, which can lead to conflict situations.

Phlegmatic temperament characterized by calmness, poise, low mobility, great rigidity (lack of flexibility) and introversion. Activity prevails over reactivity. Mental processes are slow, he needs time to focus on any activity. Phlegmatic people are characterized by low reactivity and low emotional excitability. The movements of the phlegmatic are slow, he hardly switches his attention, he does not adapt well to the new environment. In activity shows perseverance, patience and perseverance. Differs in patience, endurance, self-control. In relations with people, the phlegmatic is even, calm, it is not easy to piss him off. As a rule, he hardly converges with new people, weakly responds to new impressions, is introverted.

Melancholic temperament characterized by high emotional sensitivity, impressionability, increased vulnerability, a tendency to low mood, anxiety, and resentment. Increased sensitivity with great inertia leads to the fact that an insignificant occasion can cause tears in him and fixation on the injury. The melancholic is distinguished by a slow mental pace, sluggish and slow movements. His facial expressions and movements are inexpressive, his voice is quiet. Low reactivity and reduced activity are manifested in the fact that he is unsure of himself, often gets lost, and tends not to complete the work. The melancholic is not energetic, unpersistent, gets tired easily and has little work capacity. He is introverted, prone to isolation, restrained in expressing feelings, avoiding communication with unfamiliar people.

The history of teachings about the types of temperament

FROM THE HISTORY OF STUDIES ON THE TYPES OF TEMPERAMENT

The ancient Greek physician Hippocrates (5th century BC) is considered the creator of the doctrine of temperaments. He argued that people differ in the ratio of the 4 main "juices" of life - blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile - that are part of it. Based on his teachings, the most famous doctor of antiquity after Hippocrates, Claudius Galen (II century BC), developed the first typology of temperaments, which he outlined in the famous treatise “De temperamentum”. According to his teaching, the type of temperament depends on the predominance of one of the juices in the body.

They identified temperaments that are widely known in our time: sanguine (from Latin sanguis - “blood”), phlegmatic (from Greek - phlegma - “phlegm”), choleric (from Greek chole - “bile”), and melancholic (from the Greek melas chole - “black bile”). This fantastic concept has had a huge impact on scientists for many centuries.

Imanuel Kant (22.06.1724-12.021804).

He said that from a physiological point of view, when it comes to temperament, they mean the physical constitution (weak or strong physique) and complexion (liquid, naturally mobile in the body with the help of vital force. Which also includes heat or cold when processing these juices. )

But from the psychological point of view, i.e., as the temperament of the soul (feeling and desire abilities), these expressions concerning the properties of blood are determined only by analogy with the play of feelings and desire with bodily moving causes (of which blood is the most important). The main division of the doctrine of temperaments is this: the temperaments of feeling and the temperaments of action are divided into two types, which together gives four temperaments.

Kant ranked as temperaments of feelings: A) sanguine and B) its opposite - melancholic. The first has the peculiarity that a quick and strong effect is exerted on the sensation, but the sensation does not penetrate deeply (it does not happen for a long time); in the second temperament, the sensation is less vivid, but takes deep roots. This should be seen as a difference in the temperaments of feelings, and not in a disposition to joy or sadness.

1. TEMPERAMENTS OF FEELING

A. Sanguine temperament of a person of a cheerful disposition

The way a sanguine person feels can be recognized by the following manifestations. This is a carefree person, full of hope; he attaches great importance to every thing for a moment. And after a minute, he stops thinking about her. He promises honestly, but does not keep his word, because he has not yet thought deeply enough about whether he is able to keep it. He is good-natured enough to help another, but he is a bad debtor, and always demands a reprieve. He is a good conversationalist, jokes, is cheerful, is ready not to attach much importance to anything in the world, and all people are his friends. Usually he is not an evil person, but a sinner, not easily reformable. True, he is very remorseful. But soon he forgets his repentance (which never turns into grief for him). His work soon tires him, but he tirelessly occupies himself with the fact that in essence there is only a game. For the game is always associated with change, and endurance is not his part.

B. The melancholic temperament of a person of a gloomy disposition

A person inclined towards melancholy (not a melancholic, for this already means a state, and not just a disposition towards a state), attaches great importance to everything that concerns him, finds reasons for fear everywhere and pays attention primarily to difficulties. He will hardly make a promise, because he cannot fail to fulfill it, but he doubts whether he is able to fulfill it. And all this with him is explained not by moral reasons (for here we are talking about sensual motives), but by the fact that the opposite gives him trouble, and that is why he becomes preoccupied, distrustful, full of doubts, and because of this, he is not very receptive to fun. However, when this disposition of the spirit becomes habitual, it contrasts with the disposition of the spirit of a philanthropist, which is actually more sanguine, at least on impulse, for he who himself must do without joy is unlikely to wish it to another.

II. TEMPERAMENTS OF ACTIVITY

C. Choleric temperament of a quick-tempered person

They say about him that he is hot, flares up quickly, like straw, but with the pliability of others, he soon cools down. There is no hatred in his anger, and he loves the other the more, the sooner he yields to him. His activity is fast, but short-lived. He is active, but reluctant to take on business precisely because he does not have endurance; that is why he willingly becomes a leader who manages affairs, but does not want to manage them himself. Therefore his dominant passion is ambition; he willingly undertakes public affairs and desires. To be praised loudly.

He therefore loves the splendor and pomposity of ceremonies, willingly takes others under his protection, and is generous in appearance, not out of love, however, but out of pride, for he loves himself more. He keeps order and therefore seems smarter than he is. He likes to have means, so as not to be stingy; he is polite, but loves ceremonies, tight.

Pompous in manner, and willingly has some flatterer with him. Who serves as a target for his wit, and is more worried when his proud claims are rebuffed. A little caustic wit is enough. So that the halo of importance disappears instantly. In a word. the choleric temperament is the most unfortunate of all temperaments, because more than others it causes resistance to itself.

D. Phlegmatic temperament of a cold-blooded

Phlegm means the absence of affect, and not inertia (lifelessness), and therefore a person who does not have phlegm cannot be called a phlegmatic and, under this nickname, be classified as lazy. Phlegm as a weakness is a tendency to inactivity, unwillingness to get down to business, even if the urges for this are very strong.

Impulse insensitivity is rather useless, and his tendencies are directed only towards satiety and sleep. Phlegm as a force is the ability to move and not easily and not quickly, but for a long time. He who has a good dose of phlegm in his blood heats up slowly, but keeps warm for a long time. He does not get angry easily, but at first hesitates whether he should be angry. The cold-blooded has nothing to regret that he has a completely ordinary share of reason, but at the same time he is naturally gifted with this phlegm; although he is devoid of brilliance, he proceeds from their principles, and not from instincts.

His successful temperament replaces his wisdom, and even in everyday life he is often called a philosopher. With his temperament, he surpasses others, without hurting their vanity. He is also often called a sly, for all ballistae and catapults directed at him bounce off him like a bag of cotton.

This is a accommodating husband who knows how to take power over his wife and relatives, although in appearance he is submissive to the will of everyone. Because, possessing an unbending but prudent will, he knows how to adapt their will to his own, just as bodies with the greatest mass and high speed of movement, striking, pierce through the obstacles they encounter, and at a lower speed, but with a large volume , carry away this obstacle without destroying it.

If one temperament, as is usually thought, unites with another, they either counteract each other or neutralize. The first happens when it is believed that in the same subject a sanguine temperament is combined with a melancholic one, or a choleric one with a phlegmatic one, because they (A and B, as well as C and D) contradict each other.

The second, namely neutralization, occurs as if by a (as if chemical) mixture of sanguine temperament with choleric and melancholic with phlegmatic. It is impossible to think of good-natured joy with formidable anger, or the torment of self-torture with the contented calmness of an undemanding soul, merged in one and the same act. But if one of these two states in the same subject must be mixed with the other, then only whims and caprices are obtained, and not a definite temperament. Therefore, there are no complex temperaments.

Since ancient times, researchers, observing a significant variety of behavior, coinciding with differences in physique and physiological functions, have tried to streamline them, somehow group them. Thus, a variety of typologies of temperaments arose. Of greatest interest are those in which the properties of temperament, understood as hereditary or innate, were associated with individual differences in physique.

These typologies are called CONSTITUTIONAL TYPOLOGIES. Thus, the typology proposed by E. Kretschmer, who in 1921 published his famous work “Body Structure and Character”, was most widely used. His main idea was that people with a certain type of constitution have certain mental characteristics. He carried out many measurements of body parts, which allowed him to distinguish 4 constitutional types:

LEPTOSOMATIC - characterized by a fragile physique, high growth, a flat chest. The shoulders are narrow, the lower limbs are long and thin.

PICNIC - a person with pronounced adipose tissue, excessively obese. characterized by small or medium stature, a spreading body with a large belly and a round head on a short neck.

ATELETIC - a person with well-developed muscles, a strong physique, characterized by high or medium height, broad shoulders, narrow hips.

DYPLASTIC - people with a shapeless, irregular structure. Individuals of this type are characterized by various body deformities (for example, excessive growth, disproportionate physique).

With these types of body structure, Kretschmer correlates 3 selected types of temperament, which he calls: schizothymic, ixothymic and cyclothymic. The schizothymic has an asthenic physique, he is closed, prone to fluctuations in emotions, stubborn, not very responsive to changing attitudes and views, hardly adapts to the environment. in contrast to him, the ixothymic has an athletic physique. This is a calm, unimpressive person with restrained gestures and facial expressions, with low flexibility of thinking, often petty.

The picnic physique is cyclothymic, his emotions fluctuate between joy and sadness, he easily contacts people and is realistic in his views. The theory of E. Kretschmer was very common in Europe, and in the USA the concept of temperament by W. Sheldon, formulated in the 40s of our century, gained popularity. Sheldon's views are also based on the assumption that the body and temperament are 2 human parameters related to each other. The structure of the body determines the temperament, which is its function. W. Sheldon proceeded from the hypothesis of the existence of basic body types, describing which he borrowed terms from embryology. They are divided into 3 types:

ENDOMORPHIC (mostly internal organs are formed from the endoderm);

MESOMORPHOUS (muscle tissue is formed from the mesoderm);

ECTOMORPHIC (skin and nervous tissue develop from the ectederm).

At the same time, people with an endomorphic type are characterized by a relatively weak physique with an excess of adipose tissue; the mesamorphic type tends to have a slender and strong body, great physical stability and strength; and ectomorphic - a fragile body, a flat chest, long thin limbs with weak muscles.

According to W. Sheldon, these body types correspond to certain types of temperaments, named by him depending on the functions of certain organs of the body: visicetronia (lat. viscera- “insides”), somatonia (Greek soma - “body”) and cerebrotonia (lat. cerebrum - "brain").

Types of temperament (according to W. Sheldon)

Viscertonia

Somatotonia Cerebrotonia

Relaxation in posture and movement

Love for comfort

slow response

Passion for food

Socialization of food needs

Pleasure from the process of digestion

Love for companies, friendly outpourings Sociophilia (love for social life)

Kindness to everyone

Thirst for love and encouragement of others

Orientation to others

Emotional evenness

Tolerance

serene contentment

Good dream

Lack of explosive emotions and actions

Softness, ease of handling and outward expression of feelings.

Sociability and relaxation under the influence of alcohol

The need for people in difficult times

Child and family orientationConfidence in posture and movement

Propensity for physical activity

Energy

Need for movement and enjoyment of it

Need for dominance

Risk appetite in the game of chance

Decisive manner

Bravery

Strong aggressiveness

Psychological insensitivity

Claustrophobia (fear of closed spaces)

lack of compassion

Spartan pain endurance

Noisy behavior

Appearance corresponds to older age

Objective and broad thinking, directed outward

Self-confidence, aggressiveness under the influence of alcohol

The need for action in difficult times

Orientation to the activities of adolescence

stiffness in posture

Excessive physiological reactivity

Increased rate of reactions

A tendency to seclusion

Reasoning tendency, exclusive attention

secret feelings,

emotional retardation

Self-control facial expressions

Social phobia (fear of social contact)

Inhibition in communication.

Avoiding standard actions

Agrophobia (fear of open space)

Unpredictability of attitudes (behavior)

Excessive sensitivity to pain

Poor sleep, chronic fatigue

Youthful vivacity and subjective thinking.

Concentrated, hidden and subjective thinking.

Resistance to alcohol and other repressants

The need for solitude in difficult times

Orientation towards old age

In psychological science, most constitutional concepts have become the object of sharp criticism. The main drawback of such theories is that they underestimate, and sometimes simply openly ignore, the role of the environment and social conditions in the formation of the individual's mental properties.

Characteristics of temperament, such as the socialization of food needs, love of company and friendly outpourings, tolerance and lack of compassion, cannot be considered hereditary properties of the same order as physique. It is known that such properties, arising on the basis of certain anatomical and physiological characteristics of the individual, are formed under the influence of education and the social environment.

In fact, the dependence of the course of mental processes and human behavior on the functioning of the nervous system, which performs a dominant and controlling role in the body, has long been known. The theory of the connection of some general properties of nervous processes with types of temperament was proposed by IP Pavlov and was developed and experimentally confirmed in the works of his followers.

THE TEACHING OF I. P. PAVLOV ABOUT TEMPERAMENT

I. P. Pavlov. studying the features of the development of conditioned reflexes in dogs, he drew attention to individual differences in their behavior and in the course of conditioned reflex activity. These differences manifested themselves primarily in such aspects of behavior as the speed and accuracy of the formation of conditioned reflexes, as well as in the features of their attenuation. This circumstance enabled IP Pavlov to put forward a hypothesis that they cannot be explained only by a variety of experimental situations and that they are based on some fundamental properties of nervous processes - excitation and inhibition. These properties include the strength of excitation and inhibition, their balance and mobility.

IP Pavlov distinguished between the power of imagination and the power of inhibition, considering them to be two independent properties of the nervous system. The strength of excitation reflects the performance of the nerve cell. It manifests itself in functional endurance, i.e., in the ability to withstand prolonged or short-term, but strong excitation, without passing into the opposite state of inhibition. The strength of inhibition is understood as the functional performance of the nervous system in the implementation of inhibition and is manifested in the ability to form various inhibitory conditioned reactions, such as extinction and differentiation.

Balance - the balance of the processes of excitation and inhibition. The ratio of the strength of both processes decides whether a given individual is balanced or unbalanced when the strength of one process exceeds that of the other.

Mobility - of nervous processes - is manifested in the speed of the transition of one nervous process to another. The mobility of nervous processes is manifested in the ability to change behavior in accordance with changing living conditions. The measure of this property of the nervous system is the speed of transition from one action to another, from a passive state to an active state, and vice versa.

Inertia is the opposite of mobility. The nervous system becomes more inert the more time or effort it takes to move from one process to another.

The properties of nervous processes identified by IP Pavlov form certain systems, combinations, which, in his opinion, form the so-called type of nervous system, or type of higher nervous activity. It consists of a set of basic properties of the nervous system characteristic of individual individuals - strength, balance and mobility of processes, distinguishing between strong and weak types.

A further basis for division is the balance of nervous processes, but only for strong types, which are divided into balanced and unbalanced, while the unbalanced type is characterized by a predominance of excitation over inhibition. Strong balanced types are divided into mobile and inert, when the division is based on the mobility of nervous processes.

The types of the nervous system identified by IP Pavlov not only in quantity, but also in basic characteristics correspond to 4 classical types of temperament: strong, balanced, mobile - sanguine;

strong, balanced, inert - phlegmatic; strong, unbalanced type with a predominance of excitation - choleric; weak type - melancholic.

IP Pavlov understood the type of the nervous system as innate, relatively weakly subject to changes under the influence of the environment and upbringing. According to I.P. Pavlov. properties of the nervous system form the physiological basis of temperament, which is a mental manifestation of the type of nervous system. Types of the nervous system, established in animal studies, Pavlov proposed to extend to humans.

At present, science has accumulated a lot of facts about the properties of the nervous system, and as they accumulate, researchers attach less and less importance to the types of the nervous system, especially the magic number (4), which appears in almost all the works of I. P. Pavlov on temperament. First of all, the importance of studying individual fundamental properties of the nervous system is emphasized, while the problem of division into types recedes into the background. Since types are formed from combinations of these properties, only a deeper knowledge of the latter can ensure the understanding and implementation of typologies. However, undoubtedly. that each person has a completely definite type of nervous system, the manifestation of which, i.e., the characteristics of temperament, constitute an important aspect of individual psychological differences.

HUMORAL THEORIES OF TEMPERAMENT TYPES
The basis of the doctrine of the types of temperament was laid by Hippocrates, who, using a humoral approach, identified four types of “krasis” (translated from Greek - mixing), i.e. the ratio of four fluids (juices) in the body: blood, yellow and black bile and mucus . Each liquid has its own properties (blood - heat, mucus - cold, yellow bile - dryness, black bile - moisture), and therefore the predominance of one of them determines the state of the body, its tendency to certain diseases.
The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, who lived a little later than Hippocrates, saw the reason for the differences between people not in the predominance of one or another juice, but in the differences in the composition of the most important of these juices - blood. He noticed that the ability to coagulate blood in different animals is not the same. The greater speed of coagulation is due, in his opinion, to the predominance of solid, or earthy, particles, the smaller one, to the predominance of water, or liquid, particles. Liquid blood is cold and predisposes to fear, while blood rich in dense substances is warm and predisposes to anger.
Galen, who lived in the 2nd century AD, gave the first detailed classification of temperaments, based on the same humoral ideas of Hippocrates about “krasis”. It included 13 types of temperament, including those discussed above. From his point of view, the predominance of yellow bile (in Latin chole - chole) indicates a choleric temperament, the predominance of blood (sanguis - sanguis) - a sanguine temperament, the predominance of black bile (melanos chole - melanos chole) - a melancholic temperament, and the predominance mucus (phlegma - phlegm) - about a phlegmatic temperament.
The psychological characteristics of temperament among the ancient doctors were almost absent; Basically, these characteristics concerned the body and even individual organs. For example, Galen spoke about the temperament of individual parts of the body: the heart, the liver; brain.
The development of anatomy and physiology during the Renaissance gave a new direction to the explanation of temperament types. They are increasingly associated with the structural features of the body.
For example, a number of scientists based the division of temperaments, in addition to the physical properties of blood, based on the difference in tissues and the width of the lumen of blood vessels. Light blood, loose tissues and moderately dilated vessels facilitate, according to these scientists, the course of life processes and give rise to a sanguine temperament. With a significant density in the tissues, the blood lingers in the vessels, the pulse becomes stronger and faster, the overall warmth of the body increases, which leads to the emergence of a choleric temperament. With dense blood and narrow vessels in the tissue, only the liquid, watery part of the blood appears, due to which a phlegmatic temperament arises, characterized by low warmth and pale skin color. Finally, dense, dark blood with narrow tissue pores and a wide lumen of the vessels leads to the formation of a melancholic temperament.
This theory, in a somewhat modified form, was preserved until the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. So, P.F. Lesgaft believed that the latitude of the lumen and the thickness of the walls of the vessels play a very important role in the origin of temperaments: in choleric people - a small lumen and thick walls, which leads to a fast and strong flow of blood; sanguine people have a small lumen and thin walls, which contributes to a fast and weak flow of blood, etc.

Another anatomical direction connected the types of temperament with the structure of the central nervous system, since it is the brain that is most closely associated with those mental characteristics that characterize various temperaments. Some saw the main basis of temperament in the size of the brain and the thickness of the nerves, others in the features of their functioning.
So, Albrecht Haller, the founder of experimental physiology, who introduced the concepts of excitability and sensitivity, important for physiology and psychology, argued that the main factors in differences in temperament are the excitability of the blood vessels themselves through which blood passes.
The idea of ​​a connection between the characteristics of temperament and certain anatomical and physiological characteristics of the nervous system in various forms appears in the teachings of many philosophers, anatomists and doctors of the 19th century.
Some scientists in our country adhered to the humoral-endocrine theory of the origin of temperament types.
P.P. Blonsky (1927) believed that the characteristics of human behavior depend on how balanced and coordinated the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system work. Vagotonics are slow and calm, not inclined to fantasize, they think soberly and realistically. Sympathicotonics, on the contrary, are impulsive, resolute, often carried away and detached from reality.
Attempts to build a classification of types of human behavior, based on the fact of increased or decreased activity of individual endocrine glands, were made by N.A. Belov (1924), B.M. Zavadovsky (1928) and others. So, according to B. .M. Zavadovsky, differences in temperaments determine the interaction of the thyroid and adrenal glands: a sanguine person is distinguished by a high activity of both glands, a phlegmatic person is characterized by weakness of both, a choleric person is characterized by weakness of the thyroid gland, but a strong activity of the adrenal glands, a melancholic person is characterized by a strong activity of the thyroid gland, but weak - adrenal glands.

ENERGY THEORIES OF TEMPERAMENT.
W. WUNDT'S NEW APPROACH
The properties of temperament are most clearly manifested in those forms of behavior that are directly related to the energy expenditure of the body - with the methods of accumulation and expenditure of energy and the quantitative characteristics of these processes.
Therefore, most researchers paid attention to the emotional and motor reactions of the individual, especially emphasizing their strength (intensity) and flow in time.
An example of such an approach is the typology of temperaments by W. Wundt (1893). He understood temperament as a predisposition to affect, which was expressed in the following thesis: temperament for emotion is the same as excitability for sensation. Based on this understanding, W. Wundt singled out two bipolar properties of temperament - the strength and speed of change (stability-instability) of emotions (feelings), thereby emphasizing the importance of the individual's energy characteristics. Strong emotional reactions combined with emotional instability form a choleric temperament, a small strength of emotional reactions combined with their instability form a sanguine temperament, etc.

Classification of temperaments (according to W. Wundt)

The speed of change of feeling
The power of feelings

strong
weak

Fast
slow
Choleric
melancholic
sanguine
Phlegmatic person

Thus, W. Wundt moved away from a purely descriptive approach to temperament types, highlighting two characteristics that can be measured. He also expressed the important idea that each temperament has its positive and negative sides.

CONSTITUTIONAL THEORIES OF TEMPERAMENT
In a broad sense, the concept of the constitution covers all hereditary or congenital anatomical, physiological and mental properties of the individual.
This concept, spread primarily among Italian, French and German researchers, was most fully expressed by the French physician Claude Sigot (1904). He created a typology based on the idea that the human body and its disorders depend on the environment and innate predispositions.
Each system of the body corresponds to a certain external environment that affects this system. Thus, air is the source of respiratory reactions; food entering the digestive system forms a source of food reactions; motor reactions take place in the physical environment; the social environment causes various brain reactions.
Based on this, K. Seago distinguishes - depending on the predominance of one of the systems in the body - four main body types: respiratory, digestive, muscular and cerebral (brain).
The views of C. Seago, as well as some other concepts of that time, had a significant impact on the formation of modern constitutional theories that have become widespread in the psychology of temperament. Among them, those in which the properties of temperament, understood as hereditary or innate, were directly associated with individual differences in physique - growth, fullness or proportions, were especially widespread.

The constitutional theory of Ernest Kretschmer (1888-1964).
I noticed that each of the two types of diseases - manic-depressive (circular) psychosis and schizophrenia - corresponds to a certain type of physique. E. Kretschmer identified four constitutional types based on body proportions:
1. Leptosomatic. (Greek, leptos - fragile, smna - body). It has a cylindrical shape of the body, having a fragile physique, high growth, a flat chest, an elongated face, the head is egg-shaped. A long skinny nose and an undeveloped lower jaw form the so-called angular profile. The shoulders of a leptosomatic are narrow, the lower limbs are long, the bones and muscles are thin. E. Kretschmer called individuals with extreme severity of these features asthenics (Greek ostenos-weak).
2. Picnic (pyknos - thick, dense). He has a rich adipose tissue, excessive obesity, small or medium stature, a swollen torso, a large belly, a round head on a short neck. Relatively large body parameters (head, chest and abdomen) with narrow shoulders give the body a barrel-shaped shape. People of this type are prone to stoop.
3. Athletic (track athlon - wrestling, fight). It has good muscles, a strong physique, high or medium height, a wide shoulder girdle and narrow hips, which is why the front view of the body forms a trapezium. The fat layer is not expressed. The face has the shape of an elongated egg, the lower jaw is well developed.
4. Dysplastic (Greek dys - bad, ptaStos - formed). Its structure is shapeless, irregular. Individuals of this type are characterized by various body deformations (for example, excessive growth).
The selected types do not depend on the height of a person and his thinness. We are talking about proportions, and not about the absolute dimensions of the body. There can be fat leptosomatics, puny athletics, and skinny picnics.
Most patients with schizophrenia, according to E. Kretschmer, are leptosomatic, although there are also athletics. Picnics also form the largest group among patients with cyclophrenia (manic-depressive psychosis). Athletes, who are less prone to mental illness than others, show some tendency to epilepsy.

Constitutional typology of W. Sheldon.
Somewhat later in the United States, it became popular "the concept of W. Sheldon's temperament, formulated in the 1940s. Sheldon's typology is close to Kretschmer's concept, it is based on the assumption that the structure of the body determines the temperament, which is its function. But this dependence is masked by the great complexity of our organism and psyche, and therefore the disclosure of the connection between the physical and mental requires the selection of such physical and mental properties that reveal this dependence to the greatest extent.
W. Sheldon identifies the following body types:
1. Endomorphic type (7~1-1). The name of the type is given based on the fact that mainly internal organs are formed from the endoderm, and in people of this type their excessive development is just observed. The physique is relatively weak, with an excess of adipose tissue.
2. Mesomorphic, type (1-7-1). The mesomorphic type has a well-developed muscular system, which is formed from the mesoderm. A slender, strong body, which is the opposite of the baggy and flabby body of an endomorph, the Mesomorph type has great mental stability and strength.
3. Ectomorphic type (1-1-7). From the ectoderm develops the skin and nervous tissue. The body is fragile and thin, the chest is flattened. Relatively weak development of internal organs and physique. The limbs are long, thin, with weak muscles. The nervous system and feelings are relatively easily excitable.
These body types correspond to certain types of temperament.
However, critics pointed to too much static and neglect of development in the relationship between the psyche and body structure, emphasized the inconsistency in the division into types, and drew attention to the fact that these theories did not give a satisfactory explanation of the relationship between physique and temperament.

2. Representations by I.P. Pavlova about the types of temperament.
I.P. Pavlov considered temperament as a type of GNI, substantiating this by the presence in animals and humans of a certain severity of the properties of the nervous system.
Choleric type (unrestrained) - strong unbalanced NS
Sanguine type (balanced) - strong balanced mobile NS
Phlegmatic type (inert) - strong balanced inert NA
Melancholic type (weak, inhibitory) - weak NS.
Positive aspects of the approach:
1. A more modern physiological base began to be brought under the psychological categories of behavior (temperament) (taking the old names of temperament types, I.P. Pavlov based his explanation of the reasons for their appearance not on the fluids that make up the internal environment of the body, but on the patterns of the course of nervous activity, in including the higher brain departments);
2) behavior was associated with a set of typological features of the manifestation of the properties of the nervous system.
Despite the outward harmony and simplicity, the classification of temperament types created by IP Pavlov concealed in itself, as noted by B. M. Teplov (1959); deep internal contradictions.
First, combinations of typological features of the manifestation of the properties of the nervous system, as has now been revealed, are not so common. Obviously, I. P. Pavlov himself understood this when he spoke about intermediate types and considered that there were several dozen of them.
Secondly, it does not have a unified approach to type selection.
In one case, the type is associated with three typological features, in the other, with two, and in the third, even with one typological feature (weakness of the nervous system). But the weakness of the nervous system can give a variety of combinations with typological features - mobility and inertia of excitation and inhibition, balance or with the predominance of one of the processes.
Thirdly, data obtained in recent decades show that the choleric type of behavior is associated not with the strength of the nervous system, but with its weakness.
Fourthly, in fact, the psychological characteristics of a person (manifested in behavior, communication, activity) should have been derived directly from physiological phenomena - the features of the course of nervous processes, without any intermediate psychophysiological phenomena; motives, inclinations, abilities, etc.

Based on the ideas of IP Pavlov, the types of behavior should be strictly determined by the typological features of the manifestation of the properties of the nervous system that a person has. The impossibility of this, obviously, was understood by I.P. Pavlov.
So, in his laboratory, the fact was revealed that, depending on the conditions of education, the behavior of dogs with the same typological features of the properties of the nervous system can be different.
For example, a dog can be cowardly not only with a weak, but also with a strong nervous system, if it is brought up in adverse conditions. Therefore, I. P. Pavlov began to talk about the disguise of temperament traits with behavioral traits acquired during life.
It is no accident that IP Pavlov came to the idea of ​​the genotype and phenotype; he emphasized the need to distinguish the type of the nervous system as an innate feature of the nervous system, i.e. genotype, from character, i.e. phenotype, expressed in the way of human behavior and representing a fusion of congenital and acquired in the process of life.
However, these fair provisions of I.P. Pavlov still did not remove the sharpness of the contradictions, since temperament, having migrated to the system of physiological concepts, turned out to be divorced from the psychological mechanisms of human behavior.

Approach to classification of GND types P.V. Simonov (1970).
Even during the life of Pavlov, the attitude of the melancholic type to the reaction of fear was noticed, the choleric - to rage, the sanguine - to joy, the phlegmatic - not prone to violent emotional response.
These three emotions: fear, rage, pleasure have a clearer structural representation in the brain of higher mammals. It is likely that the type of NS of a given creature is largely determined by the relative strength of the cerebral systems of fear, ... rage., and joy. These three parameters seem to be the most essential for constructing a new classification of the types of higher nervous activity in animals, and possibly in humans” (p. 101).
From here came the formulas of temperament:
Anger > Joy > Fear - most close to choleric;
Joy > Anger > Fear - closer to sanguine;
Fear > Joy > Anger - closer to the melancholic.

3. PSYCHOLOGICAL (FACTOR) THEORIES OF TEMPERAMENT
Theories of temperament types have been criticized not only because
the authors of most of them, based on constitutional theory, were looking for direct and. simplified connections between body type and temperament type.
the assumption that natural phenomena, including mental characteristics, really exist in their extreme forms, has not been confirmed.
as follows from typological concepts, mental characteristics can be “sorted out” or divided into clearly distinct groups. However, it is known that almost all phenomena observed in nature are distributed along the so-called normal curve (Gaussian curve), according to which each property in most people appears in its average value, while extreme manifestations are rare; in the considered typologies, they are the focus of attention of researchers.
At the beginning of the 20th century, studies of temperament appeared, which boiled down to a “pure” psychological description (or characterization) of the properties of temperament, abstracting from the structure and function of the body.

1. One of the first was the theory of temperament, belonging to the Dutch psychologists G. Heymans and E. Wiersme (1906-1909).
The authors of this theory developed a special questionnaire containing 90 questions, and with its help examined almost 2500 persons (adults and children). Based on the data obtained, they identified three main, bipolar characteristics of temperament
1. Emotionality - the absence of emotionality is determined by measuring the frequency and strength of emotional reactions in relation to the situations that caused these reactions.
2. Activity - naccuity, Activity at work, at school or at home, a way of spending leisure time (active - passive), attitude to duties (performs tasks immediately - postpones them).
3. Primary function - secondary function.
People with a developed primary function react strongly and immediately to environmental stimuli, the effect of these reactions quickly fades. In individuals characterized by a secondary function, the initial reaction to the stimulus is weak, then it gradually intensifies and persists for a longer time, therefore persons of this type are often called perseverative (from the English pursfceimce - stamina, perseverance, perseverance).
Researchers sometimes draw attention to the analogy between primary function and eustraversion, secondary function and introversion.
As a result of the appropriate combination of these three characteristics, we get eight different types of temperament.
emotionality activity function primary (P) or secondary (S) temperament
+ + P Sanguine
+ + V Phlegmatic
- + P Choleric
- + In Addictive
+ - P Amorphous
+ - B Apathetic
- - P Nervous
- - In Sentimental
Having carried out a statistical analysis that was difficult for its time, the authors came close to factor analysis - a statistical method, the use of which had a significant impact on further studies of temperament.

Typology of K. Jung.
Carl Jung (1875-1961) also divided people into types based on psychological differences, which, however, he considered innate.
K. Jung identified two general types - extroverted and introverted.
Extroverts are characterized by a focus on the object, so the opinions of other people, generally accepted norms, objective circumstances determine their actions to a much greater extent than their own attitude towards the surrounding reality. In an introvert, subjectivity prevails over objective. Experiencing some emotion, an introvert pays attention not to the events or people that caused this emotion, but to their own experiences. His own opinion is more important to him than the surrounding reality or the opinions of other people.
In addition to the conscious attitude, both types also have an unconscious attitude: the more the conscious attitude is exaggerated, the more primitive and infantile the unconscious attitude becomes. In extraverts, when the conscious attitude is suppressed, the unconscious attitude is introverted (subject-oriented) and dresses up in egocentric aspirations. In introverts, the unconscious attitude emphasizes the meaning of the object, the external situation. The stronger the introverted conscious attitude is expressed and, consequently, the more the unconscious extraverted one is suppressed, the more anxiety and mistrust the introvert is caused by new and unfamiliar objects, the more terrible it becomes for him to communicate with others. The ideal for such an introvert was a desert island, writes K. Jung.
Depending on the development of the four main mental functions - thinking, emotions, sensations and intuitions, K. Jung distinguishes four types of extroverts and four types of introverts:
Extroverted thinking is inherent in subjects who make important decisions rationally, create schemes of objective reality and are guided by them in their behavior, demanding the same from those who ship them; such people can be reformers and innovators. However, the narrower the scheme, the more likely it is that a representative of this type will turn into a grumbler, and their service to the ideal will not stop him from any moral laws: the end justifies the means. People of this type have emotional dullness: they rarely sympathize with others and do not value friendship, aesthetic experiences are alien to them, and therefore they are not interested in art.
Extroverted emotional. People of this type are prone to a “correct” emotional assessment of everything that surrounds them. They like partners who meet certain criteria (for example, occupying a certain social position). They go to the theater and experience there those emotions that should be experienced in the theater; From their feelings it always blows cold, so their behavior is perceived as a pretense.
Extraverted sensory type. Such people determine the value of objects by the strength of sensation; the stronger it is, the greater the value of the object. They seek enjoyment and pleasure, impress those around them as people enjoying life, aesthetes, if sensations do not dominate over OTHER functions. Otherwise, they become unpleasant for others,
Extroverted intuitive type. Such a person has an unusually developed sense of smell for everything new and unusual. He is easily and violently carried away by a new object, can infect with his enthusiasm and inspire others, but as soon as the object of his affection exhausts his possibilities for development, he forgets about it without regret and switches to a new one. At the same time, moral principles never bother him, therefore, those around him consider him frivolous and even an adventurer. K. Jung writes about people of this type that they “spread” around them full of life, but it is not they who live, but others.
Introverted thinker. A person of this type is characterized by thinking that does not recreate the real reality, but brings its vague image to an understandable and clearly formulated idea. Because of this, he tends to adjust the facts to the idea or ignore them altogether. He creates theories for the sake of theories. Unlike the extroverted thinking type, it seeks not to expand knowledge about the world, but to deepen it, does not seek to captivate others with its ideas and win their support - When convinced of the correctness of its ideas, it resents a society that refuses to accept them. He is a bad teacher. People around him are perceived as arrogant and domineering. However, for those who know him closely, he looks naive and unadapted.
Introverted emotional type. A representative of this type looks outwardly calm, even indifferent. His emotions are often imperceptible to others, although inside he can boil everything. His emotional restraint is perceived negatively by others, as a manifestation of coldness.
The introverted sensory type, in contrast to the extraverted sensory type, focuses not on objects that cause intense sensations, but on the intensity of sensations caused by objects. Therefore, as soon as a sensation arises, the object loses its value for such a person. Representatives of this type are incomprehensible and unattractive to others.
According to K. Jung, the introverted intuitive type gives rise to science fiction writers and artists, and in case of deviation from the norm, mystics. The products of their creativity are incomprehensible to others.
It is impossible not to pay attention to the fact that when describing these types in K, Jung, a tilt towards their negative characteristics is clearly visible. This is due to the fact that the source of this typology was the clinical experience of its author.

Ideas about the temperament of G. Eysenck.
The English psychologist Hans Eysenck (1957) proposed to consider the typologies of Kretschmer and Jung as a system of four coordinates.
The first coordinate is formed by the object-subject orientation (from maximum extraversion to maximum introversion):
The second coordinate is the Norm-Pathology Scale. Average values ​​of pathology (mental deviations) form neuroses, strong - psychoses.
The third coordinate is the scale “manic-depressive psychosis - schizophrenia”. The middle of this scale is represented by normal mental states. For one type of temperament, the normal states are synthonia (minimal cyclothymia) and cyclothymia proper, for the other, dystonia and schizothymia. The average values ​​of mental deviations form, respectively: hysteria and psychasthenia, and the maximum - manic-depressive psychosis and schizophrenia.
The fourth coordinate is formed by three body types: picnic, athletic and leptosomal.
The advantages of these ideas of G. Eysenck are
firstly, summing up the physiological basis for the purely psychological types of K. Jung;
secondly, that all psychological manifestations - normal and pathological - are considered as continuums of meanings, and not as extreme groups. But even in this case, one of the coordinates related to body types remains discrete.
Based on the description of the behavior of extroverts in introverts - on the one hand, and individuals with high and low neuroticism - on the other hand, G. Eysenck built his own model of temperament types. The type of temperament, according to this author, is one US of four quadrants at the intersection of two orthogonal scales: 1) extraversion-introversion and 2) emotional stability-lability. The first scale characterizes the individual from the side of "openness" to the outside world, the second - from the side of emotional stability. The combination of emotional stability with extraversion G, Eysenck identifies with the type of sanguine person; emotional lability and extraversion - with the type of choleric; emotional stability with introversion - with the type of phlegmatic, and emotional lability with introversion - with the type of melancholic.

4. APPROACH TO THE STUDY OF TEMPERAMENT IN THE PERM PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGICAL SCHOOL V.S. MERLIN AND THE PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGICAL SCHOOL B.M. TEPLOV
Wolf Solomonovich Merlin believed that the type of temperament depends on the general type of the nervous system, and attributed it to the constitutional type. However, he considered such a characteristic of temperament to be insufficient and put forward a number of other signs.
The first main sign of the temperament of V.S. Merlin considered the conditionality of his properties of the nervous system.
Further, he called the following features that can be attributed to the properties (characteristics) of temperament:
regulate the dynamics of mental activity in general;
characterize the features of the dynamics of individual mental processes;
have a stable character for a long time;
are in a strictly regular ratio characterizing the type of temperament.
In other words, the signs of temperament are its innateness, stability of manifestation, influence on the dynamics of human mental activity, the presence of a certain set of properties (krasis) that determines one or another type of temperament. In addition, he attributed the features of the emotional-volitional sphere to the properties of temperament.
However, in practice, everything came down to the study of individual temperamental properties, to which V.S. Merlin referred:
sensitivity, reactivity, activity, the ratio of reactivity and activity, the rate of reactions, plasticity-rigidity, extraversion-introversion.
V.S. Merlin believed that the methods used to study the types of the nervous system cannot be considered sufficient. In his opinion, at best, they establish the actually existing set of typological features observed in a given person or a stochastic relationship (when using statistical methods on a group of people). The psychological functional interdependence of the properties of the nervous system cannot be established in this way. Therefore, according to V. S. Merlin, the existing typologies of the nervous system should be considered only preliminary.
Indeed, the presence of certain typological features in a person still. does not mean that all of them: are included in the same typological complex. There may be features that are neutral in relation to the typological complex. Therefore, it is necessary to know what and how this typological feature influences and how its influence is consistent with the influence of other typological features that a given person has. Only then can one make a judgment about whether he has any typological complex, i.e., a combination of typological features that determine the degree of manifestation of one or another psycho-physiological phenomenon (inclination, ability, volitional quality, etc.).
From the point of view of V. S. Merlin, a type should be understood not simply as a combination of typological features, but as a combination, accompanied by regular connections between them.
Wolf Solomonovich Merlin was born on January 22, 1898. In 1923 he graduated from the Petrograd Pedagogical Institute. He worked at the Leningrad, Saratov and Sverdlovsk Pedagogical Institutes, at Kazan University, from 1.054 the head of the psychology department of the Perm Pedagogical Institute, where he created his own school of differential psychophysiology. His main works are devoted to the psychological problems of temperament and personality. Author of the integral theory of personality. Died in 1982.

At the same time, he considered it most likely that the type does not depend on a combination of typological features, but, on the contrary, the properties, the features of their manifestation depend on the type.
Therefore, the main direction of studying the properties of the nervous system and temperament was to establish a connection between some typological features of the properties of the nervous system and individual characteristics (properties) of temperament.

REFUSAL TO STUDY TYPES OF TEMPERAMENT IN THE PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGICAL SCHOOL B. M. TEPLOVA
A more consistent position was taken by BM Teplov (1956). He noted the danger of mixing two concepts: type of behavior and type as a complex of properties of the nervous system (more precisely, a complex of typological features of the manifestation of these properties).
It should be emphasized that when they talk about type, they mean an integral characteristic that reflects a complex (combination) of several properties.
In the laboratory of V. M. Teplov, a certain methodology for studying the properties of the nervous system was developed, a clear presentation of which was given by V. D. Nebylitsyn (1966).
One of the fundamental provisions of this methodology is the requirement to study the properties of the nervous system, and not the types of higher nervous activity.
Too often it was just a matter of dividing the contingent of subjects into four “types” and only, at best, isolating a few more intermediate ones.

Orientation to only four types of higher nervous activity (which, by the way, still exists in the textbooks of physiology, psychology, and pedagogy) began to hamper the development of differential psychophysiology. Such combinations of typological features were revealed (strong, unbalanced with a predominance of inhibition over excitation; weak with a predominance of inhibition, etc.), which could not be attributed to any of the variations of the Pavlovian classification of types.
The problem became even more complicated when, in the laboratory of B. M. Teplov, they began to postulate new properties of the nervous system: lability, dynamism, concentration. Therefore, B.M. Teplov believed that at this stage of studying the problem, the identification of typological features of the manifestation of the properties of the nervous system has more scientific meaning than the definition of “types”. He rightly believed that no scientifically substantiated classification of types is possible until the questions relating to the basis of this classification ~ ~ properties of the nervous system are studied in detail.

5. CORRELATION OF TEMPERAMENT AND CHARACTER
Along with the concept of "temperaments of psychology", the concept of "character" is also widely used (from the Greek. charakter - trait, sign, seal, chasing). Character is understood as a set of stable individual characteristics of a person that develops and manifests itself in activity and communication, causing typical behaviors for her.
Among the many character traits, some act as leading, others as secondary, while they can either be in harmony (and then they speak of the integrity of the character), or contrast with the leading features (and then they speak of a contradictory character). Among character traits, along with truthfulness and deceit, tact and rudeness, and other personality traits acquired in the process of human socialization, extraversion-introversion, which are considered properties of temperament, are also called. This raises the question: what is the relationship between temperament and character?
As noted by A. G. Kovalev and V. N. Myasishchev (1957), the question of the relationship between temperament and character was raised by many psychologists. The authors identified four groups of opinions:
I) identification of temperament and character;
The exponent of the first point of view is Kretschmer; which, deriving temperament from the characteristics of the bodily constitution, essentially implements it with the character of the personality. This point of view is quite common in Western psychology, where temperament is not distinguished as an independent concept, but acts as a synonym for the concepts of “personality” and “character” (R. Cattell, G. Eysenck, S. Eysenck 1969).
In domestic psychology, similar views were shared by A. F. Lazursky. He identified temperament and character and attributed them to the endopsyche, which characterizes the innate supply of physical and spiritual forces. He believed that endo-manifestations express internal, subjective relationships between the psycho-physiological elements of a given personality, and at the same time they are always associated with the individual characteristics of the central nervous system.

2) opposition to the temperament of the character, the establishment of antagonistic relations between them;
Proponents of the second point of view note that temperament is an innate primary reaction of the personality, and character is a manifestation of a secondary reaction acquired in experience (P. Viktorov, 1887). Antagonism arises between the primary reaction, which constitutes the "primary individuality," and the secondary reaction, or "secondary individuality." The second slows down the first.
The same point of view is shared by N. D. Levitov (1969), who believes that temperament is not part of the character and that the latter is in antagonistic relations with the first. In his opinion, personality development takes place along the path of overcoming temperament by character, transforming temperament under influence of character. The personality is, as it were, bifurcated, its individual properties are opposed to each other. In this case, the character may come into conflict with temperament.

3) recognition of temperament as an element of character;
supporters of the third point of view (L. S. Vygotsky, S. L. Rubinshtein, B. G. Ananiev, V. M. Rusalov and others) consider temperament as an innate basis of character, as a dynamic side of character and personality. According to L. S. Vygotsky, for example, temperament is a prerequisite, and character is the end result of the educational process. Scientists who adhere to this point of view consider temperament as the core of character, as its unchanging part, in contrast to the character itself, which changes throughout life.
According to V.M. Rusalov, the development of temperament occurs for two reasons:
1) following biological age development and
2) as a result of successive socially organized types of activity (play, study, work, etc.), i.e., in the process of education and training” (1885, p. 31).
However, V. M. Rusalov does not have a clear distinction between temperament and character.
There are, however, character traits that can be with any type of temperament. This is honesty, kindness, politeness, or, conversely, deceit, greed, rudeness. Depending on the temperament, these traits can manifest themselves in different ways.

6. SPECIAL TYPES OF HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY ACCORDING TO I.P. PAVLOV
IP Pavlov, along with the “general” types (temperament) inherent in Man; and animals, postulated - and "special", types inherent in the same man; because they reflect the correlation between the first (figurative) and the second (speech-cogitative) signal systems.
He identified three such types;
artistic, in which the activity of the first system is especially pronounced,
mental, in which the activity of the second signal system noticeably predominates;
mixed, in which the activity of both systems is expressed equally.
The artistic type is distinguished by a pronounced inclination towards figurative-emotional thinking. This does not mean that his second signaling system is not developed (that is, verbal-logical thinking is not developed). This only means that people of this type perceive reality with an unusually sharp, vivid, complete and direct perception (for example, they are able to clearly, sometimes to the degree of hallucination, imagine objects and phenomena), they have a highly developed imagination, and hence the ability to reproduce is well expressed. reality in artistic images, picturesqueness of speech (which distinguishes many artists, artists, musicians).
The mental type is distinguished by an increased ability and inclination to verbal-logical (abstract) thinking. It is characterized by the ability to analyze and systematize, a tendency to abstract reflection, responding not so much to specific phenomena as to their generalization. But at the same time, it is not at all necessary that the first signal system is poorly developed in him. It's just that abstract thinking prevails over figurative thinking. Therefore, we can say that this is not only a style of perception of reality, but also a style of thinking: the artistic type prefers to translate what is perceived into images of reality, and the thinking type prefers to translate it into abstract, abstract symbols.
I. P. Pavlov spoke in the spirit that the artistic type is not inferior to the mental type in the development of speech and logical capabilities: The main thing that distinguishes “artists” is a synthetic strategy for receiving and processing information, thanks to which they grasp reality as a whole, her. “Thinkers”, however, are distinguished mainly by the analytical strategy of perception and development of reality. Hence, there is a desire to compare these types with the functional asymmetry of the brain, since the synthetic strategy is inherent in the right hemisphere, and the analytical one in the left. The dominance of the right hemisphere can lead to the appearance of "artists" (dominance of the first signaling system), and the dominance of the left hemisphere - "thinkers" (dominance of the second signaling system).
These types of thinking are closely related to the characteristics of perception, so you can distinguish types of people on this basis. It is shown that a vivid emotional-figurative perception and understanding of works of art is characteristic of people of an artistic type (G. V. Bystrova, 1968; V. S. Merlin, 1938; V. P. Yagunkova, 1966). However, the connections of these types with the “general” types and properties of the nervous system remain unclear. I. P. Pavlov suggested that “thinkers” should correspond to melancholic, and “artists” - to choleric. Some studies (B. N. Brike, 196i; G. V. Bystrova, 1976; V. V. Pechenkov, 1997) show the existence of such connections. For example, L.P. Kalininsky (1971) showed that a more successful use of the expressive means of a language depends both on the development of the second signaling system and on the presence of a weak nervous system in the subject.
In a study by N. E. Vysotskaya (1976), conducted on students of a choreographic school, a connection was found between artistic abilities (emotional expressiveness, artistry and plasticity, danceability) and the properties of the nervous system. Students with pronounced artistic abilities more often had a weak nervous system, mobility of excitation and inhibition, and the predominance of excitation in terms of “external” and internal balance. A strong nervous system, as found in this study, interferes with emotional expressiveness. If we take into account that, according to N. E. Vysotskaya, students with well-pronounced artistic abilities also had a predominance of the first signal system, then it can be assumed with a high degree of probability that the “artistic type” is characterized by precisely those typological features of the manifestation of the properties of the nervous system that are listed above.
In the laboratory of E.A. Golubeva shows that the predominance of one of the signaling systems is accompanied by peculiar complexes of typological features.
The figurative and effective style of perception, thinking and memory, the lability of the nervous system and the dominance of the right hemisphere are associated with the first signaling system.
The verbal-logical style of cognitive activity, the inertia of the nervous system, and the dominance of the left hemisphere are associated with the second signaling system.
It does not at all follow from this that every great artist (in the broad sense of the word: artist, writer, painter, musician) has a weak nervous system, high mobility of nervous processes and a predominance of excitation over inhibition (in one work, the author, on the basis that Leo Tolstoy is a great artist of the word, claims that he had a weak nervous system). Such a vulgar interpretation of a special type through the properties of the nervous system has little in common with the scientific solution of this question.
For example, even in choreography, one of the most emotional types of art, the emotionality of perception associated with the properties of the nervous system mentioned above is not always the foundation on which the skill of ballet dancers is built. Many achieve mastery through technique, the latter is associated with the inertia of the nervous processes, which provides a good motor memory.

Questions for independent work
1. What characterizes the formal-dynamic and structural-content features of the individual psyche?
2. What approaches to understanding temperament do you know?
3. List the main types of temperament. What are these classifications based on?
4. Outline the role of temperament in human behavior and life. What is its adaptive function?
5. Give literary and historical examples of different temperaments.
6. Try to practice establishing hypothetical relationships between the characteristics of temperament and a) the sex of a person, b) personality traits, c) personality orientation.

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