Koryo State

At the beginning of the X century. the territory of the Korean Peninsula was an arena of struggle between the independent rulers who broke away from Silla, the largest of which were Gyeonghwon, who founded the state of Hubakche in 892, and Kunye, who also proclaimed the creation of his own state in 901 (in 904 it was named Majin and then, in 911, Taebon). Among Kunye's associates, Wang Gong stood out, coming from an influential family that had emerged during the collapse of the Silla state and owned land in the Sonaka area.

Taking part in the campaigns of Kunye, Wang Gong established himself as a capable military leader and gained great popularity in Taebon. In 918 he overthrew Kunye and proclaimed the creation of the Koryo state. Wang Gong essentially had only one opponent - Hubakche, since the weakened Silla eked out a miserable existence and sought friendship with Wang Gong (in 920 an alliance was concluded between them, in 931 Wang Gong personally paid a visit to Van Silla and then sent an ambassador with gifts). In 935, the last Sillan van voluntarily surrendered to the rule of Van Gon, and already in the next year, Hubakche was finally destroyed, thereby completing the unification of the country. The capital of the new state was Sonak, renamed Kegen (modern Kaesong).

It took several decades to completely end the separatist tendencies of the local rulers. When they were subordinated to Wang Gong, in most cases their former possessions were left to them. By the 80s of the X century. they were finally done away with, and a unified administrative system was introduced throughout the country.

At this time, a serious threat loomed over Koryo from the north. In 946, the Liao Khitan Empire conquered North China. Having conquered the Jurchen tribes inhabiting the Amnokkan River basin, the Khitan reached the Koryo border. The rulers of Goryeo took a number of measures to defend the country, erecting several new fortresses and strengthening their garrisons. At the same time, they in every possible way avoided giving the Khitan a pretext for war, maintaining a position of neutrality between Liao and Song China.

However, in 993 the Khitan crossed the Amnokkan and invaded Koryo. Having defeated the Koryo troops in the Ponsan area, they reached the Chongchonggang River and crossed it, however, moving even further south, they suffered a serious defeat and were forced to start peace negotiations. The Khitan had to abandon the seizure of the Koryo lands, but the Koryo pledged to sever relations with the hostile Khitan Sunami. In the same year, the Khitan left Koryo, and soon relations with the Sunami were restored; the northern border began to be strengthened vigorously.

In 1009, van Mokchon was overthrown by one of the generals. The Khitan immediately took advantage of the favorable situation and again, in 1010, invaded Koryo. After the unsuccessful siege of Hinkhwangjin, the Khitan went into the interior of the country and at Tongju defeated the Korosh army in a decisive battle. In 1011 the Khitan sacked the capital, Kegen (the court fled to Naju). Meanwhile, resistance continued in the occupied territory, and the Khitan, unable to suppress it, began to retreat.

In 1014, a group of military leaders seized power in Koryo. Soon, in 1018, the third Khitan invasion followed. After the battle at Hinhwangjin, they moved to Keegyon, but after being defeated in a number of battles, they were again forced to retreat. During the retreat, they were utterly defeated at Kuju. After that, the Khitan gave up their attempts to conquer Koryo and established diplomatic relations with him.

Goryeo flourished in the 11th century, especially under Van Munjon (1047-1082). It was he who created the administrative system that existed for almost two and a half centuries. It was the time of the triumph of the principles of centralization and state ownership of land (which was restored with the establishment of Goryeo). However, already at the beginning of the XII century. signs of a weakening of the state and a reduction in the state land fund began to appear. Due to the exorbitant growth in the number of officials, the question arose of stopping the issuance of official allotments to them, the material well-being and status of the bulk of the officialdom began to decline. At the same time, many lands were transferred as a reward to "honored dignitaries", granted or seized by the relatives of the Vanir, who did not perform real functions in the sphere of government. As a result, the property differences between the bulk of the bureaucracy, directly involved in the affairs of the service, and the upper nobility, increased enormously, which led to sharp contradictions among the ruling class. The contradictions between the military (less privileged) and civilian officials, between the metropolitan and provincial nobility also intensified. The situation was aggravated by the arbitrariness of the large landowners in relation to the peasants, whose allotments they seized (as well as the official land of minor officials). The intensified tax oppression (to a large extent due to the arbitrary demands of the officials collecting taxes) and the heavier labor service led to the ruin of the peasants - holders of state allotments; the more frequent flight of farmers further worsened the situation of those who remained, linked to them by mutual responsibility. Ultimately, this led to a reduction in state revenues. At the same time, powerful families arose that did not come from the ruling clan; seizing state lands along with the peasants who sat on them, they not only concentrated great wealth in their hands, but also received a certain political weight. Many lands belonged to monasteries. In general, the XI-XII centuries are marked by the growth of large private land ownership. Many large landowners maintained armed groups.

At the beginning of the XII century. Goryeo had to face the Jurchen, which grew stronger as the Khitan Liao empire weakened. In 1104, in a battle with them at the Chongpyeong fortress, the Koryo troops were defeated. In 1107 the Jurchens undertook a new attack, but this time they were repulsed with heavy losses.

The Koryo troops, having transferred the war to the enemy's lands, captured a significant territory, however, two years later, under the constant onslaught of the Jurchens, they were forced to leave it, and after the proclamation of the Jin Jin Empire in China, Kore had to admit vassal dependence on it.

At this time, the real power in the country belonged to Lee Jagyom (his grandfather, Lee Jayeon, held a prominent position under Wang Munjon). He married Wang Injon to his two daughters and concentrated the administration of the War Ministry and the Ministry of Officials in his hands. Van Yingjon tried to remove him in 1126, but this attempt ended with the van himself actually being imprisoned. The following year, thanks to the support of a group of dignitaries from Seogyon (modern Pyongyang) led by Buddhist monk Myocheon Injon, Lee Jagyom was removed from power, but this led to the growth of ambitions of the Seogyong group. In Sogyon, separatist sentiments intensified, resulting in the largest rebellion of 1135. Myocheon became the ideologist of the rebellion, proving with the help of geomantic constructions that the capital of the state should be moved to Sogyon. Significant territories of the North-West, declared the "State of Great Achievements", were under the rule of the rebels. After a siege of many months in the spring of 1136, the government troops led by the eminent statesman Kim Busik took Seogyeon by storm and brutally suppressed the rebellion. It was a victory for the supporters of strengthening the state.

However, in the second half of the XII century. the relations of the opposing factions were aggravated again. In 1170, Van Uijong was overthrown in a military coup. The military leaders, led by Chon Junbu, elevated Myeongjong (brother of the deposed Wang) to the throne, but left the real power in their hands, and the role of the supreme governing body was actually performed by the collegial military body Chunban.

From the middle of the XII century. peasant demonstrations became more frequent in the country. They took place in 1162, 1166, and in 1176 a real peasant war broke out under the leadership of Mani, which covered several southern provinces. The rebels were state serfs (nobi) and other peasants. In total, they captured more than 50 cities. In 1177, after the suppression of the main centers of the uprising in the south, the uprising spread to the northwestern regions. It was finally suppressed only by the end of 1178. Mani, after cruel torture, was executed. A major uprising took place in 1193-1194. in Gyeongsang province under the leadership of Kim Sami, Hyo Sim, and others.

In 1196, the real power in the country was seized by the commander Choi Chunghong, who created, as it were, his own, parallel dynasty of rulers. Until 1258, i.e. until the Mongol conquest, he and his descendants ruled the country, and the Vans possessed only nominal power. Choi Chunghong did a lot to strengthen internal political stability and successfully prevented the actions of his potential opponents, but peasant uprisings continued.

In 1198, the Nobi conspiracy was uncovered in the capital, the next year there were peasant uprisings in the north-east of the country, and in 1200 an uprising of the Nobi and peasants broke out in the Gyeongsang province. In 1201, it was successfully suppressed, but the next year a new uprising began in this province, which lasted until 1203.

At the beginning of the XIII century. Kore had to again face the Khitan, who were driven out by the Mongols from their lands. During 1216-1218. The Khitan invaded the peninsula three times, but each time, being defeated, they retreated.

At the same time, Koryo for the first time found himself face to face with a more dangerous enemy - the Mongols. The struggle of the Korean people against the conquests of the Mongols is covered in the next chapter.

The administrative system of Goryeo was formed, on the one hand, on the basis of the Taebon, on the other, the Sillak state traditions. Fundamentally new in the Koryo bureaucratic system was the absence of proper ranks in it: it was established, as in China, 9 ranks, each of which was subdivided into two degrees. The degree became the main factor that determined the position of a person in society and the system (in accordance with it, the payment of salaries was also made); a certain degree was provided for each position.

The degree system in Koryo covered all persons receiving the established content (including those who were not officials in the full sense of the word): officials of central (capital) institutions, military, provincial, court officials, titled women (wives, concubines, Van daughters), close relatives of the Van; persons with special titles of merit (hun), persons with honorary titles (chak); civil officials without specific functions (munsang) and military officials without specific functions (musang).

The central apparatus consisted of institutions of various types: higher government agencies, line ministries, main scientific and educational and other large institutions, administrations (si), offices (so), warehouses (chan, ko), palace institutions, the so-called togams and other institutions , created for a specific period of time to perform specific tasks. Although throughout the history of Koryo, reforms and changes were carried out in the administrative apparatus many times, the most significant ones were carried out in the middle of the 11th century. under Van Munjon (1047-1082), when the administrative system was basically formed. A huge bureaucratic apparatus was created, the staffs of all institutions were determined and unified as much as possible, and all positions in the state were clearly described by ranks and degrees. The staff of the institutions was increased several times due to the large number of clerks who stood below the degree system, but nevertheless occupied certain positions. The advisory body under Van was Tobenmasa, positions in which were held concurrently by the highest dignitaries of the state. In total, there were 150-170 institutions in the central office of Koryo, more than 500 different positions are known, which were occupied by about 2.5 thousand officials.

Administratively, Koryo was divided into provinces (to), which included smaller administrative units - settlements of different sizes with adjoining territories. The number of provinces was not constant; in the XI-XII centuries. in addition to them, there were two border regions (Eastern and Northern), each including two or three provinces. For each province and smaller administrative units, there was a specific administrative staff. Three major cities (small capitals) had a special status: Pyongyang (the former capital of Goguryeo), Gyeongju (the former capital of Silla) and Yanju (the former capital of Baekje), called Seogyeon.Tongyeon and Namgen ("northern", "eastern" and "southern" capital Cities). There were special bodies to manage them, and Sogen, who played a very special role in the state, also had an administrative apparatus that duplicated the capital.

The Kore army consisted of units, divided into units (yong). These detachments had a single organization and states and were headed by Changuns. For general leadership, there was a collegial body - Chunban, consisting of commanders of large formations and their deputies. There were about 4 thousand military officials.

In total, there were about 10 thousand officials in Koryo. For service they were provided with conditional land plots in accordance with their rank. In 1076, a grain salary was introduced.

Officials (yangbans) constituted the ruling class of Koryo. There was no legal line between the relatives of the Van and the rest of the bureaucracy (as in Silla), but property differentiation among the ruling class was very great, reaching a ratio of 1: 100. The bureaucracy was recruited from all strata of society, mainly through the promotion of ranks for merit and through the passing of exams, restored in 958 (free peasants could also participate in them).

As in the United Silla, the main object of exploitation in Koryo was the free peasantry (yang-ying), who sat on state allotments. All peasants of working age were liable for military service. Below them stood the cheonin ("vile"): nobi and people of despised professions. The artisans were relatively few in number and were mostly in the public sector. The merchants were also few in number and operated mainly in the sphere of state interests. The source of its manning was rich peasants. Although the trade was considered despised and the status of merchants was lower than that of farmers, their welfare and standard of living significantly exceeded those of the peasantry.

With the establishment of the Koryo state, state ownership of land was restored, and at a higher level in the sense of strengthening the conditionality of holdings. Chongsikwa allotments, issued for service to officials, consisted in the right to collect state tax in their favor from a certain territory, and when the official position changed, the allotment was also replaced. On the same basis, land was allocated for the maintenance of state institutions (konhejon), pension allotments for the widows and children of officials (kubunjon), for military settlers (tunjon). The lands of the wang itself (nejandjon) and the palaces (kunwonjon) existed in particular. Persons who had the titles of nobility kon, hu, pek, nam and cha were entitled to sigip - allotted from 3,000 to 300 households, taxes from which went in their favor.

Private lands were represented primarily by donated lands (sajon), which passed into the full ownership of their recipients (mainly relatives and close Vans), as well as premium lands (konymjonsi). The lands donated to Buddhist monasteries were also private. The rulers of Goryeo sought to limit the growth of private land ownership, and as long as the state retained internal stability, they succeeded. With the weakening of the state, abuses by powerful dignitaries, who sought to permanently secure their official lands, increased many times, and the private sector showed a tendency to grow.

The peasant lands were called minjon. They were assigned to the peasants, but remained the property of the state, which reserved the right to change allotments, take away, etc. The state sought to equalize the size of the allotments and prevent their capture by officials.

The land tax was the main form of exploitation of the peasantry. Under Van Gon, it was set at 1/10 of the harvest, but already at the end of the 10th century. rose to a quarter. There was also a household tax, paid by fabrics or other items (depending on local conditions). In addition to taxes, there were a number of duties in Koryo, the main of which was labor, and besides it, military (each peasant called up for active service was provided by several other conscripts), transportation, etc. ships and were used in heavy work).

The rent paid by peasants who rented land from private owners exceeded the land tax rates and reached half of the harvest. Quite widespread was the state loan, provided on concessional terms, for the needs of which the state created a special grain fund, formed from special deductions from tax revenues. As a rule, it was 10%, while private usurers took up to 30-60%.

The main crops cultivated during the Goryeo period were rice, barley and millet. Flax and hemp were mainly grown from industrial crops. Professional handicrafts were mainly state-owned and concentrated mainly in the capital, where there were a number of state institutions in charge of the manufacture of various items, as well as workshops serving the needs of the van and the court, and in several large cities. Everyday items for the needs of the people were produced directly in peasant families (fabrics, mats, wooden products, dishes, etc.).

Internal trade was strictly regulated by the state, which created a special department to control it. There were markets only in a few large cities and were open every five days. There were several hundred shops in the capital, Kegyeong. The state enjoyed the right to change prices at its own discretion. The role of money was played by grain and textiles. Attempts to introduce metal money were unsuccessful (they were in circulation only for some time in the late 11th - early 12th centuries). Silver bottles, introduced into circulation at the end of the 11th century, enjoyed great success.

Foreign trade was mainly due to merchants accompanying the embassies arriving in Koryo. Thus, foreign merchants visited the country infrequently, but in very large groups - up to several hundred people. With the Khitan and Jurchens, trade was carried out in the border zone, and with Japan - through the city of Kumju. The main foreign trade partner of Koryo was Sung China. Traditional Korean imports consisted of precious metals, ginseng, silk, porcelain, and paper; the main consumer of imports was the Van court. Books of Buddhist and Confucian content and works of art were also imported from China.

In the ideological field, Confucianism and Buddhism dominated. The entire system of education and training of cadres of officials was entirely under the influence of Confucianism. In addition to the highest Confucian academy, there were a number of state-owned and quite a few private schools created by the Confucians on their own initiative.

Buddhism in the Goryeo period reached its highest flowering. Buddhist monasteries received land plots on the same basis as government institutions, and the highest ranks of the Sangha were equated in this respect with officials. The Buddhist Church possessed enormous wealth donated to it by Vans and individuals. In contrast to the Silla period, the monks in Koryo took an active part in political life, their armed groups participated in the struggle for power. Over time, Buddhism began to increasingly come under attack by the Confucians, the most radical of them demanded not only to deprive the Sangha of the material base, but also to completely ban Buddhist teachings.

The humanities have reached a high level of development in Koryo. There was a special department for the compilation of historical works. Such outstanding works as "Samguk sagi" ("Historical records of three states") by Kim Busik and "Samguk yusa" ("Forgotten deeds of three states") by Iryona were created. More than 6,000 volumes of the Big Collection of Buddhist Sutras ("Tejanggyon") were published in woodcuts; in the XIII century. the metallic font began to be used. There were advances in medicine, astronomy and other sciences.

Buddhism continued to stimulate the development of the visual arts, especially sculpture. For the needs of the court and high dignitaries, a significant number of highly artistic luxury items were produced. Koryo porcelain was especially famous. Palace and park architecture reached a high level during the Goryeo period.

The largest poet of the Goryeo period was Li Gyubo, who left about two thousand works (including prose). A number of other poets are also known, but little of their writings have survived to our time. Folk songs were widespread. In the capital, from time to time, mass festivities were held, where various songs and dances were performed. In the field of music and choreography, the most significant contribution was made by Cho Yong, who lived in the 11th century. and who created many original dances.

Korea. Wang Seo: 4th King of Goryeo - Gwangjong

Gwangjong / Wang So / / 광종 光宗 (925 - 975) was the fourth emperor of the Goryeo Dynasty, whose kings ruled the country from the unification of the nation in 936 to the establishment of the new Joseon Dynasty in 1392. According to some reports Gwangjong was born not in 925, but in 920.

Goryeo dynasty

First ruler Koryo Wang Gong was careful enough to win over the aristocracy of the Silla State. He gave the last king of this state an important post in his government, and also married a woman from the royal family Silla to legitimize your rule. Wang Gong prepared his successors Ten Prescriptions, so that after him they would continue to strengthen the state and strengthen protection from neighbors in the north. In these Ten precepts Wang Gong warned his descendants that although the power of the sovereign relies on the clans, this happens only in wartime, and in peacetime it is worth weakening the influence of clans on the ground. But at the same time, he called for a cautious policy so as not to provoke an internal conflict and attempts to overthrow the government.
In 943 when Wang Gong died, he received the posthumous title of King Taejo ("Great Progenitor"). He was succeeded by his son Hyejong / 혜종; 惠 宗 (943-945), second emperor. And then his second son, Jeongjong / 정종; 定 宗 (945-949), third emperor. In 949 he took the throne Gwangjong / Wang So- the third son.

The beginning of the reign

When in 949 Wang So, third son Van Gona, ascended the throne, he realized that his position is very unstable. His father fought alongside Kun Ye when he rebelled against the queen. Silla and then conquered Parhe, Baekje and Hupekje. Clan leaders who supported Van Gona, considered themselves almost gods in their land, but instead of obeying the king, they competed among themselves for influence over the government, and through the government over the king. Generals who once helped Wang Gong sit on the throne and create Koryo, led by his successors and had exorbitant ambitions.
Predecessor Gwangjon, King Jeongjon, unsuccessfully tried to reduce the power of the inner circle in the government, but without the support of the elite, he could not significantly strengthen the power of the throne. I could not even move the capital to Pyongyang.

Wang So realized that his first priority should be the creation of a strong and stable government. Recognizing the great similarity between his position and that of Taizong Tang (626-649), who ascended the throne of China after helping his father found the Tang Dynasty, Wang So did a thorough study of the rulebook Taizong for Emperors(Laws for the Ruler, Di Fan). From this book, he acquired many ideas on how to create a stable government.
One of the first problems I faced Wang So, was to eliminate or reduce the strength of his rivals, many of whom he imprisoned, exiled or executed. He passed a number of laws aimed at centralizing government. One of them, adopted in 956, was about freeing slaves (during conflicts between various warring clans, many captured people were transferred to the rank of nobi, and they were forced to work as slaves for their invaders. Wang So restored those who had been unjustly deposed to commoners, thereby weakening the power of the estates and increasing tax revenues (slaves should not pay, but peasants should).
In 958 Wang So initiated a system of examinations for the civil service so that the selection of government officials (노비 안검 법; 奴婢 按 檢 法) came from among the most talented and intelligent candidates, regardless of social status or background. Previously, government appointments were made based on social status, family ties, and location rather than merit, allowing many incompetent people to take leadership positions and impose a class system. The principle of examinations for civil service thereafter continued to be used for the next 900 years until 1894.
Then Gwangjong chose the Korean name of the era - Chunphun (motto), proclaimed himself an emperor, sovereign and independent from any other country. This marked the end of a dependent relationship with China. Successors Wang So were also known as Emperors.

Choi Seungno (최승로; 崔 承 老 ), historian who served as prime minister under the first six kings Koryo including the king Taejo, father Wang So, wrote a book criticizing Gwangjon that he moved Koryo to debt, being too obsessed with Buddhist activities, rituals and community projects. He stated that the first eight years of his reign Gwangjon were peaceful, because he ruled wisely and did not punish harshly, but after that he became a tyrant, spent unnecessarily money, tolerated corruption and punished anyone who opposed his centralized policy.
At the end of your life Gwangjong began to build numerous Buddhist temples. Scientists suggest that perhaps he repented of the murder of all those influential people who were not on his side and wished to calm the popular indignation that arose.

Heritage

Wang So ascended the throne only thirty years after his father, the king Taejo, founded a dynasty Koryo... At a time when the royal clans were vying for political power, the throne was constantly under threat. Recognizing the need for a stable government, Wang So passed a number of laws to centralize the power of the state and weaken the power of local feudal lords. Free the slaves and return them to their free status as a commoner. In 958, he instituted a civil service exam system to keep talented and intelligent people in government positions. After him, this system was used for 940 years.
His son and grandson developed additional rules for governing the country, which allowed Koryo succeed under strong centralized government; and brought the country into line with the Confucian model of the state. Wang So fell ill with a serious illness in May 975 and died a few days later.

The Middle Ages in Korea began with the history of three states - Goguryeo, Baekje, Silla. Goguryeo occupied northern Korean lands and part of the territory of modern northeastern China (approximately to the Liaohe River in the west and the Songhua River basin in the north), Baekje - the southwest of the Korean Peninsula, Silla - its southeast. The chronicle tradition attributes the emergence of the three states to the turn of our era. The question of the time of their actual formation remains controversial. In Soviet historical science, it is generally accepted that this process ended in the 5th-6th centuries.

Goguryeo, Baekje, Silla were early feudal states. The supreme power in them belonged to the van (ruler) and the aristocracy, which consisted of tribal leaders and military leaders. On behalf of the wang, the land was distributed "for feeding" to civilian and military officials. For the most part, the peasantry was personally free, but was dependent on the state (it paid taxes and taxes, carried labor conscription). The most oppressed and disenfranchised part of the population were the Nobi (slaves who gradually turned into serfs).

Agriculture, handicrafts and trade developed in all three states. Material and spiritual culture has reached a relatively high level. In the first centuries of our era, Confucianism and Buddhism spread. The culture of the three states had a very definite distinctive character, which by no means excluded interaction and mutual influence with the culture of neighboring countries and peoples.

The internecine races typical of the early stage of feudalism in the three states were aggravated by outside interference. The earlier and more powerful Goguryeo, which took shape earlier than others, repeatedly repelled attacks by Chinese troops. Baekje and Silla, in their fight against Goguryeo, sometimes turned to the rulers of China for help.

The pressure on Goguryeo intensified at the end of the 6th century, when China was unified under the rule of the Sui dynasty. After a series of raids by the Sui troops, Goguryeo in 598 sent a 10-thousandth detachment, which struck them west of the river. Liaohe. In response, the Sui emperor Wen-di began a war against Goguryeo, sending an army and a large fleet of 300,000 there. However, this campaign ended in failure: the ground forces ran into stubborn resistance from the Koguryos at Liaohe and were forced to stop here, suffering losses, and the fleet was killed in a storm.

In 612, the Sui emperor Yan-di undertook a new move against Goguryeo. A huge army took part in it. However, its main forces, having crossed the Liaohe, got bogged down at the Goguryeo fortress of Yodong (Chinese Liaodong near the present-day city of Liaoyang). The warriors and inhabitants of the fortress bravely repulsed enemy attacks for five months. Seeing the delay in the general offensive, Yan-di sent a corps of 300,000 by land and a large detachment by sea with the task of capturing Pyongyang, the capital of Goguryeo. The lack of interaction led to the fact that the naval forces arrived at their destination earlier than the ground forces and were defeated by the defenders of Pyongyang.

The Sui troops, crossing the Amnokkan (Yalu-jiang), were subjected to continuous surprise attacks by the Goguryeo detachments, and the population hid or destroyed food along the entire route. Exhausted by endless battles and hunger, they could not take Pyongyang and were forced to retreat. The Goguryeo army, led by the outstanding commander Ylchchi Mundok, stubbornly pursued the enemy and, when crossing one of the rivers, utterly defeated him. Less than 3 thousand Sui soldiers then managed to return to their homeland. In 613 and 614. Yan-di made two more attempts to conquer Goguryeo, which also ended in failure.

The conquering policy of the Sui dynasty was continued by the Tang dynasty, which came to power in 617. Its army performed in 645-651. four unsuccessful campaigns against Goguryeo. Failure-chi prompted the Tang rulers to more actively use the confrontation between the three Korean states. Having entered into a military alliance with the gaining power Silla, they helped her defeat Baekje in 660, and in 668 - Goguryeo, weakened by internal strife and long wars.

All the fruits of the victory in the wars with Goguryeo and Baekje, achieved mainly through the efforts of Silla, went to the Tanam. Tens of thousands of prisoners were taken to their state, huge material values ​​were taken away. On the territory of the conquered states, the Tang dynasty organized its viceroyalty and deployed troops, the maintenance of which was a heavy burden on the shoulders of the local population.

The resistance of the Korean people grew. Rebel detachments arose everywhere, attacking the Tang troops. Silla became the bulwark of the struggle for independence. In 670, she began to liberate the Baeki lands and the next year cleared them of Chinese troops. Following this, a struggle began for the territory that had previously belonged to Goguryeo. The military operations proceeded with varying degrees of success. Dozens of battles took place every year. In 676, with the liberation of Pyongyang, the war with China was practically over. Almost all the lands of the Korean states were united under the rule of Silla. However, part of the former territory of Goguryeo remained in the hands of China. In 735 the Taedong River was declared the border between Silla and China.

In the VII-VIII centuries. Silla developed into a strong, centralized feudal state. It was headed by a van, supported by a ramified administrative apparatus, not a large, but strong army. Further consolidation of the feudal system took place. In 722, the fields occupied by the peasants were formalized as allotments received from the wang (chonjon), which ensured the attachment of the peasants to the land. In 757, in addition to providing dignitaries with land "for feeding", they introduced the issuance of allotments for service to officials (kvalёjon), from which they collected land tax in their favor. As before, the main forms of exploitation of the peasantry were land tax, taxes in kind, and labor service.

Urban craft has reached a significant level. Extensive construction was carried out throughout the country. The center of political and economic life was the capital of Silla - Gyeongju. The sciences developed, especially astronomy and mathematics. A state higher school was opened in the capital to train officials. A number of philosophers (Kim Daemun, Choi Chiwon, etc.) developed the ideas of Confucianism in their works. The first lag to the creation of the Korean writing system was the method of writing Zorean words and grammatical forms using Chinese characters. On the basis of oral folk art, fiction was born. Architecture, fine arts, and music also developed.

Silla carried out relatively wide political and trade relations with its neighbors - Bohai, Japan. After a hiatus, relations with China also resumed. Silla merchants often traveled there and even established their settlements there. In relations with China, the rulers of Silla, like some other neighboring countries to China, adhered to the principles of nominal vassalage, which, in essence, did not affect the prerogatives of the Wang in domestic and international affairs, but made it possible to avoid encroachments from China.

From the end of the VIII - the beginning of the IX century. Silla entered a period of prolonged decline. Large private feudal land property was formed on the basis of the wang's grants and the appropriation of the ‘office plots’, and the state land fund, which provided the maintenance of officials and the army, was reduced. Feudal exploitation increased sharply, a significant part of the peasants lost their free status. At court, the struggle of feudal groups intensified, and peasant uprisings became more frequent everywhere.

The weakening of the central government allowed the local large landowners and officials to disregard it and even enter into an open struggle. Their separatist actions led to the fact that at the beginning of the X century. Silla split into three states (Taebon, Hubakche and Silla proper) and several small estates. The rulers of the newly emerged states were at enmity with each other, often making ruinous raids on their neighbors. Not only the peasants and the urban poor, but also the lower and middle strata of the ruling class suffered from feudal strife.

The urgent needs of the socio-economic and political development of the country dictated the need for its new unification. This task was fulfilled by the prominent commander Vav: Gon, who in 918 seized power in Taebon, and then subordinated the rest of the states and possessions. The newly created state was named by him Koryo (hence the modern European name "Korea"). By the end of the X century. Koryo limits in the north-west extended to the river. Amnokkan, in the northeast - approximately to the modern city of Yongheung.

Wang Gong and his closest successors made it famous. stabilization of the situation in the country, took a number of measures to strengthen the central government and local government apparatus. Much attention was paid to increasing the defense capacity of Koryo. In particular, compulsory military service was introduced, which extended to the free peasantry, on the basis of which the army was formed. Military settlements were created along the borders to guard them.

The time of Goryeo can be attributed to the entry of Korean feudalism into the period of maturity. Its first rulers carried out a course of strengthening state ownership of land, which was realized through the issuance of allotments to officials: (chongsigwa), 'as well as (for expenses) to institutions, educational institutions, etc. Private feudal land ownership, initially under state control. Its largest forms were the possessions of the reigning house and the Buddhist church, as well as donations and donations given to dignitaries by the van for merits; premium lands.

During the Goryeo period, the social structure of feudal society took shape. All the bureaucracy, which formed the basis of the ruling class, was divided into 18 ranks, in accordance with which allotments for service were provided. The division into civilian and military officials (the former were in a more privileged position than the latter) gave rise to the term “yanban” (“two divisions”), which have since been identified as belonging to the ruling class. The personally free peasantry (dependent only on the state) over time Koryo began to be called "yangin" ("worthy people"), in contrast to the unequal class of "chhonin" ("little people"), to which the Nobi and some others belonged: categories.

Koryo's legislation was aimed at anchoring the peasants to the land. To this end, they re-legalized the allotments they had, gave landless plots from the state fund, allowed the lease of state and private lands. Relevant rules regulated exploitation by the state, primarily the traditional triad of land tax, taxes in kind, labor service. Some restrictions also affected private feudal exploitation.

The unification of the country and the streamlining of the management system, the incentive measures of the authorities led to the growth of the economy of Koryo. The area of ​​cultivated land expanded, the productivity of agriculture increased, the level of handicraft production increased (and now the porcelain products of that time are going high), attempts were made to introduce monetary circulation. Koryo maintained trade relations with China and Japan, as well as with the Khitan and Jurchen. In the XI century. Goryeo was visited by Arab merchants several times.

Culture was further developed. Printing was widely spread in Korea. One of its samples is created in the XI century. "Tejanggyon" ("Large collection of Buddhist sutras"), numbering more than 80 thousand woodcuts. By the XIII century. include the appearance in Goryeo of a typesetting metal font. There were achievements in astronomy, medicine, geography, history. In particular, the oldest surviving chronicles were created: "Samguk sagi" ("Historical records of three states") Kim Busik (1145) and "Sam-guk yusa" ("Forgotten deeds of three states") Kim Iryona (end of the 13th century). In the sphere of ideology, Buddhism prevailed, however, from the 13th century. it was more and more crowded out by Confucianism of the Chzhusian persuasion. In addition to the Confucian Academy and a certain number of state educational institutions, often Confucian schools arose everywhere. Among the poets of Goryeo, the largest was Li Gibo (1169-1241). Wonderful works ‘were created by masters of applied and visual arts,’ music and dance. In the capital Kegyeong (present-day Kaesong) and its environs, the builders erected a number of grandiose architectural ensembles.

Goryeo's peaceful existence did not last long. In 993, he was attacked by the Khitan, who had recently established the Liao empire in Northeast China. They managed to defeat the vanguard of the Koryo army and advance to the river. Cheongchonggang. Here they met a decisive rebuff from the main forces of the Koryo troops, led by Te Do-su and Yu Ban, and, having failed to achieve success, were forced to leave. At the end of 1010, the Khitan invaded Koryo for the second time. Their attempts to take possession of several fortresses in the northwest (including Pyongyang) ended in failure. However, at the beginning of 1011, the Khitan managed to break into Kegen and hold out in it for ten days, plundering and ravaging the flourishing capital of Koryo. Beaten from here by the Koryo army and population, they were defeated in several battles and expelled from Koryo.

The Khitan invaded for the third time in 1018. The outstanding commander Kan Gamchkhan, who headed the defense, took measures in advance to repel the enemy. The Koryo army concentrated at Kegyun forced the enemy to return. At the Kuju fortress (present-day Kuson) Kan Gamchkhan fought a decisive battle, as a result of which the Khitan were utterly defeated.

After three tangible defeats, the rulers of the Liao Empire abandoned their plans to conquer Goryeo. Diplomatic relations, usual for that era, were established between the two states. Hoping to protect the country from new incursions from the north, the Koryo authorities organized the construction of a defensive wall, which stretched across the entire Korean Peninsula from the mouth of the Amnokkan to Toryeongpo on the eastern coast (not far from modern Hamhung). It took 11 years to build it (1033-1044).

At the beginning of the XII century. the threat of Koryo came from the north-sprout, from the side of the Jurchens. In 1104, their ruler Uyashu approached the Chonpyeong Koryo border fortress. Lim Gan, who was in charge of her defense, tried to drive off the Jurchens, but was defeated. The capital official who replaced him, Yun Kwang, also did not achieve success at that time. He had to take emergency measures “to replenish the army. Only thanks to this, in 1107, when the Jurchens reappeared within the Koryo, they were defeated. Moving forward, the Korean army captured 135 Jurchen villages, in the place of which Yun Gwan founded nine fortresses, resettling residents there from the southern provinces of Koryo. However, Koryo did not have enough strength to defend the acquired lands. Under the onslaught of the Jurchens in 1109, he had to leave the land north of Chongpyeong. Soon after this, the Jurchens defeated the Khitan and conquered the entire North; China, having created its Jin empire there. The Koryo authorities were urged to recognize their vassal dependence on her.

One of the reasons for this failure is the beginning of a general weakening of Koryo. As before, it was based on the exorbitant expansion of private feudal landed property. With the connivance of the authorities, large feudal lords and officials plundered the state land fund, seized peasant allotments, turning their owners into their serfs. The limits allowed by the law were exceeded by feudal exploitation, usury flourished. The arbitrariness of local "influential families", endless extortions affected not only the peasantry, but also other categories of the population. The impoverishment of the state treasury affected the provision of bureaucracy, the maintenance of the country's defense capability. The Koryo army gradually lost its fighting qualities, but the armed detachments belonging to the nobility grew and strengthened.

Participants from the end of the 11th century became evidence of political instability. palace coups, the struggle for power of the feudal groupings, using for their own purposes the growing discontent of the masses. In 1135, the feudal lords and officials of the Northwestern Territory, centered in Sogyon (present-day Pyongyang), revolted, actively supported by the population, and even tried to secede from Koryo. It took a whole year to suppress this rebellion. In 1170, military officials, who were not satisfied with their position, seized power in the country. Subsequently, there was a series of bloody clashes between military and civilian officials, as well as among the military themselves.

Along with feudal strife, the peasant movement expanded, which in the last quarter of the 12th century. three times turned into real wars against the oppressors. In 1176-1178. in the prov. Gyeongsang, Jeolla and Pyeongan operated numerous rebel groups led by Manyi and other peasant leaders. In 1SHZ-1194. mass uprisings took place in Prov. Gyeongsang. The largest detachments here were Kim Sami and Hoshima. A new wave of the rebel movement surged in 1196-1202, engulfing the northeastern counties and prov. Gyeongsang, and this time it was attended not only by the peasants, but also by the urban lower classes and even the Buddhist mo-yaahi. Several large detachments in the south united under the leadership of Phaejwa and fought the government forces for more than six months. During these uprisings, dozens of fierce battles took place, which led to the defeat of the insurgent movement. But later on, folk performances continued, although they did not have such a massive character.

Weakened by internal contradictions, Koryo was the object of the aggressive campaigns of the Mongol khans. The first Mongol troops invaded in 1231. Part of them laid siege to the Kuju fortress, whose defenders repulsed all Mongol attacks. The main forces of the conquering went to the central regions of Koryo. Their vanguard was defeated, but then the Koryo army was defeated in a decisive battle. When the Mongol troops approached the capital, ill-prepared for defense, the ruling elite of Koryo asked for peace. Having plundered the country and leaving 70 governors in Kegyon and large cities, the Mongols left Koryo. At the beginning of 1232, the population of Koryo rose up and killed all the governors.

Since 1232, a rare year has gone without the Mongol raids on Koryo. Many cities and villages were destroyed, thousands of people died, were taken prisoner. Wang and his entourage took refuge on the island of Ganghwa, inaccessible to the steppe conquerors, taking with them the most combat-ready part of the army. Only the common people, some military and civilian officials resisted the enemy. A number of cities became famous at that time for the heroic defense organized by local soldiers and the population. In one of the battles in 1232. the Mongol leader Saritai was killed. Subsequently, Mongke Khan demoted several of his generals who had failed to conquer Koryo. Only after the Mongols thoroughly ravaged the southern provinces, which supplied the Van court with food, did the rulers of Koryo agree to capitulate in 1259. However, the masses did not recognize the capntulyatsin and continued resistance in many parts of the country. The largest uprising against the conquerors and the Koryo feudal lords who entered into an alliance with them was the uprising in 1270-1273. soldiers of three special corps (sambolcho) - a kind of Van Guard. This uprising, actively supported by the population of the southern provinces, was brutally suppressed by the combined forces of the Mongols and Koryo feudal lords.

The Yuan Empire, created by the Mongols in China, seized vast territories in the northwest and northeast and Jeju Island in the south from Koryo. The Yuan authorities unceremoniously interfered in the internal affairs of the country: they overthrew the unwanted vans, appointed high-ranking officials. Until the beginning of the XIV century. in Koryo there were Mongolian representatives who controlled the actions of its authorities. Having undertaken in 1274 and 1281. campaigns in Japan, the Mongols made Koryo ^ their base, forcing the population to build ships, supply food and equipment. Thousands of Koryo warriors and sailors died during these unsuccessful campaigns. Wars, extortions and arbitrariness on the part of the Yuan Empire worsened the already difficult situation of Koryo.

The collapse of the Yuan Empire in the middle of the XIV century. also meant the end of Koryo's dependence on her. During this period, the pro-Mongol group at the Van court was defeated, the sovereignty of Koryo was restored over its entire territory, and even eight yuan fortresses on the right bank of the Amyokkan were destroyed. red-headed "), who considered this country a part of the Yuan Empire and therefore tried to conquer it. Since 1359, the "army of redheads" invaded Koryo several times by land and sea, in the fall of 1361 it even managed to capture the capital, but by the joint efforts of the Korean troops and the population, it was thrown back from Kegyon and at the beginning of 1362 was finally expelled ... In subsequent years, Koryo reflected the raids of local feudal lords who rose to the fore in the border regions of Northeast China; twice to fight them it sent its troops to these regions.

In the last quarter of the XIV century. internal contradictions in Koryo intensified. Because of the unbridled feudal exploitation and defensive wars, agriculture and other sectors of the economy were in a deplorable state. The bulk of the state land fund was transferred to the "influential families", the treasury received a minimum of funds for the maintenance of officials and the army. The process of impoverishment of the population also affected many strata of the ruling class. Thousands of people were vagabonds and fled outside the country. Whole squadrons of pirates acted with almost impunity along the Korean coast, plundering and destroying what still survived.

The political life of the country was in a fever with the increased rivalry of feudal cliques. A new upsurge of the popular movement began. Economic devastation and chaos in the socio-political sphere worried the most far-sighted part of the ruling class, among which there was formed an influential group headed by the prominent military leader Lee Songge that advocated the urgent implementation of reforms in the most important areas of the life of the state.

The internal difficulties of Koryo were aggravated by contradictions with the Ming dynasty that reigned in China in 1368. Considering herself the heir to the Yuan rulers, she not only demanded from Koryo to pay a large tribute, but also made claims to his territory, once seized by the Mongols. In the late 80s of the XIV century. the Chinese army crossed the Amnokkan and occupied the Kange county, where the Mines intended to establish control over the lands taken from Koryo.

Meanwhile, in Korea, a group of reform advocates have grown so strong that they seized power. Its leader, Lee Songge, took the throne in 1392, initiating the Li dynasty, which ruled Korea until 1910. the country received the name Joseon, which has survived to this day. Seoul became the capital.

The new authorities paid attention to the establishment of the state mechanism of the feudal Korea... For this purpose, the activities of central and local government bodies were restored and streamlined. They also managed to seriously undermine the influence of local separatist circles and the Buddhist church. The latter was deprived of part of its lands, the serfs of Buddhist temples were transferred to the treasury, which sharply weakened the economic and political positions of this stronghold of separatism. "Influential families" were deprived of the right to have their own armed units. Instead of them, a unified state army was recreated.

From the end of the XIV century. socio-economic transformations were carried out in Korea. Among them, the main thing is the issuance of ranked ^ adels (kwajon) to officials for life in 1391. In 1466 they were replaced by official allotments (chikchon), provided only for the duration of the service. According to the norms established by the state, lands were also allocated to central and local institutions. The new rules prohibited encroachment on state land, on the basis of which the authorities confiscated many illegally acquired private properties. Strengthening the state ownership of land in this way did not mean the elimination of private feudal land ownership. On the contrary, the latter has again received official recognition and opportunities for further growth.

The reforms also affected the social sphere. To streamline it, population censuses were periodically conducted, during which the social status of each person was clearly recorded. The norms of nobi possession were established, everyone in excess of the norm was taken to the treasury. Those peasants who found themselves in serfdom, who were able to prove their respective rights, were transferred to the free estate. Measures were again taken to secure the peasants to the land. Several major legislative acts have to some extent streamlined the system of feudal exploitation, primarily the land tax.

Reforms of the Konda XIV - early XV century. contributed to the revitalization of economic life. The course proclaimed by the authorities to encourage agriculture was implemented in the repair and construction of irrigation facilities, the expansion of cultivated areas and the promotion of the main crop - rice far to the north, the introduction of new agricultural techniques (for example, planting rice seedlings) ^, etc. The scale increased. handicraft production. In the capital alone, about 3 thousand state-owned artisans were registered, producing almost 130 items. Evidence of shifts in trade was the emergence, first in the capital, and then in the rest of the provinces of local markets, still weakly connected with each other. Foreign trade has also become somewhat more active.

Strengthening Korea economically and militarily, it allowed it to eliminate the threat from its neighbors. The main danger at that time was Japanese pirates. They suffered a strong blow in 1389 as a result of a Korean fleet raid on Tsushima Island, the main base of Japanese pirates. However, they managed to defeat them only in 1419 after the second expedition of the Korean fleet to Tsushima. The situation was tense in the north of the country, where at times there were conflicts with the Jurchens.

By the middle of the 15th century. Korea drove them out of the Amnokkan and Tumangan (Tumyn-jiang) rivers, which since that time have finally become the border of the state. In the territories of the extreme northwest and northeast of the Korean Peninsula, new fortresses were built, where the inhabitants of the southern provinces were resettled, who made a lot of effort to develop these areas.

After the aggravation of contradictions in the 80s of the 14th century, which almost led to war, Korea's relations with Ming China remained tense for some time. Only at the beginning of the 15th century. they gradually normalized, acquiring a traditional character. The elimination of pirates opened up opportunities for improving relations with Japan. At the beginning of the 15th century. Korea was also visited by the embassies of Siam (Thailand) and from the island of Java.

The history of medieval Korea in the 15th-16th centuries is the period of the highest rise in culture. Scientists have published a number of significant works on agriculture. economy, medicine, astronomy, geography. Much attention was paid to the study of the history of their country. In particular, the multivolume "Koryo sa" (" Story Koryo "), the compilation of the" Chronicle of the Li Dynasty "(" Lijo Silloc ") began. An outstanding event in the history of Korean culture was the creation in 1443 of a national writing system.

The development of science and education in Korea was restrained by the official Confucian ideology. Nevertheless, a materialistic movement arose and gained strength in philosophy, the founders of which were Kim Sisyp (1435-1493) and So Gyeongdok (1489-1556). In contrast to Confucian scholasticism, the scientific school "sirhak" ("real sciences") was formed. Its initiator, Li Sugwan (1563-1628), called for focusing on specific problems of science and practice, studying the experience of other countries, and taking care of the common people. At the same time, he sharply opposed the blind worship of everything that came from China.

The literature and art of Korea rose to a higher level. Several new genres appeared in poetry, in which Chon Gygin, Chon Chol, Song Sammun and other poets performed successfully. Fictional prose was born, in which genre diversity also existed. The craving for the real, for the truthful display of Korean reality was growing. The works of Kim Si-syp, Lim Jae, Ho Gyun were especially popular. A noticeable phenomenon in the cultural life of that time was the emergence of the theater of masks and the theater of puppets, Lk intended mainly for the common people. Much new and significant also happened in musical, visual, applied arts and architecture.

Despite the fact that the transformation of the Konda XIV - early XV century. were more decisive than in previous epochs, they had a relatively short-term effect. The level of development of private feudal property reached by that time was such that it rather quickly overcame the restrictions established by law and steadily increased in size, mainly due to its large categories. The allotments issued by the state for service gradually passed into the ownership of the recipients, and by the middle of the 16th century. this form of land tenure has finally outlived its usefulness. The object of active appropriation was also the peasant lands, the possessions of state institutions, military settlements, etc. As a result, the state land fund again decreased, which directly affected the treasury revenues. In parallel with the growth of private feudal property, the enslavement of the peasantry and the intensification of its exploitation took place.

Already by the middle of the 15th century. again, the contradictions among the ruling class intensified, the manifestation of which was the palace coups, the revolts of some dignitaries. Anti-war feudal groups were often accompanied by mass reprisals against rivals. As usual, the leaders who stood in opposition to the ruling elite tried to attract under their banners the people, outraged by the tax oppression and the oppression of the authorities. In 1467 in Prov. Hamgyo.n a powerful peasant uprising took place, the leadership of which was seized by the head of the local feudal separatists Li Xie, who hoped in this way to achieve privileges for his supporters. This uprising was brutally suppressed. In the XVI century. the popular movement continued to grow. Among the rebel leaders, the most famous was Lim Kkokchon, with a detachment of which government forces could not cope for about three years.

In the spring of 1592 Korea, weakened by internal contradictions and not ready for war, was attacked by the huge army of the ruler of Japan Hideyoshi. At first, the Imjin War (named after the name of 1592 in the Korean calendar) was extremely unfortunate for Korea. The Japanese troops, which had landed in the southern port of Pusan, suppressed the scattered pockets of resistance and, not meeting an organized rebuff from the Korean army, rushed to the north. Already three weeks after the landing, they captured Seoul, abandoned by the van and his ministers, and a month and a half later, after heavy fighting at the river. Imjingan fell Pyongyang. Part of the Japanese troops broke through far to the northeast of the Korean Peninsula. Wang and his entourage settled in the city of Uiju, on the border with China.

The situation at sea was completely different than on land. The outstanding Korean naval commander Li Sungxing kept the fleet under his command in constant combat readiness. The basis of the fleet was made up of light rowing ships, armed with cannons and covered with a metal canopy on top, which sheltered the eki-page from shelling. In several fierce battles, the Korean fleet inflicted great damage on the enemy's naval forces. So, after the battle at Hansando Island, only 14 and 73 Japanese ships escaped by flight. Such successful actions drained the Japanese fleet, deprived it of the opportunity to regularly deliver reinforcements to Korea.

Amid the helplessness of the official authorities, the Korean people took over the defense of the country. Wherever the troops of the conquerors appeared, partisan detachments arose, which were called Yibyon ("The Army of Justice"). They were joined by patriots from all classes. In numerous battles, the partisans smashed the enemy's rear and liberated a number of counties and cities in the provinces they had captured. The mass movement under the banner of Yiben was the most important factor in the growing resistance to the enemy.

From the very beginning of the war, the Korean government has repeatedly appealed for help to Ming China, which responded only when Japanese troops approached its borders. The first Chinese detachment, sent to Pyongyang in the summer of 1592, was defeated there. The main forces of the Chinese army (43 thousand soldiers) at the beginning of 1593, together with the Korean troops, liberated Pyongyang. But after that, their command had little regard for the Korean authorities and commanders, avoided active hostilities, and were looking for ways to a truce behind the back of an ally. It refused to storm Seoul, where the Axis forces of the Japanese troops were concentrated, and they staged a massacre in the city. When the Japanese nevertheless left Seoul under the blows of the Yibyon units, the passivity of the Chinese army allowed them to leave with impunity. For some time they were not even pursued.

In the middle of 1593, the Japanese troops, which had rolled back to the south, were anchored on a bridgehead in the Busan region. In an effort to gain time to prepare a new campaign, the rulers of Japan began protracted negotiations for peace. Meanwhile, China withdrew its troops from Korea. In Korea, measures were taken to strengthen the defense, hampered by devastation and poor harvests. Feudal strife, which had revived again, also had a disastrous effect. One of their victims was Li Songxing, who was ousted from his post. Regardless of anything, the state and the feudal lords robbed the war-torn population.

In such a situation, in the summer of 1597, the Japanese offensive in Korea began. The ground forces took possession of a vast territory in the south, and the naval forces defeated the Korean fleet. However, this time the success of the Japanese troops was short-lived. The Korean army, partisan detachments and the Chinese troops returning to Korea inflicted several serious defeats on the enemy and forced him to retreat. Returned to his former position, Li Sungxing restored the combat capability of the fleet and carried out a number of successful operations with heavy losses for the enemy. At the end of 1598, the Japanese troops, pressed by the Korean-Chinese army, fled. However, the ships on which they were stationed intercepted the Korean fleet and the Chinese es-cadre that had joined it. In this battle, Li Sungxing died heroically, but the enemy was finally defeated, and only a third of his ships managed to escape.

The Imjin War, which ended in this way, brought enormous disasters to Korea. Many cities and villages were burnt and destroyed, the population was significantly reduced, and the area of ​​arable land decreased by more than three times. The southern provinces - the main granary of the country - suffered especially. It took decades of hard work to eliminate the consequences of the hardest war. No sooner had Korea fully recovered from it, when it again found itself a victim of aggression, this time from the Manchu.

During the many years of the Manchus' struggle with China, the Korean government declared its neutrality. But under pressure from the Minsk authorities and their supporters in its midst, it has repeatedly provided China with support, including military. Such violations of neutrality gave the Manchu rulers a pretext for attacking Korea, which played an important role in their plans of conquest.

At the beginning of 1627, a 30-thousand-strong Manchu army suddenly crossed the Amnokkan ice and invaded Korea. The population and garrisons of many fortresses showed it desperate resistance, but still the Manchus broke through into the depths of Korean territory. Having captured Pyongyang, they moved in the direction of the capital. Upon learning of this, the government, led by a wan, hastily moved from Seoul to Ganghwa-do Island. Along the entire path of advancement of the Manchus, the population created partisan detachments (they were traditionally called Yibyon), which inflicted tangible blows on the enemy. Everywhere the inhabitants deprived him of supplies> food and fodder. In such conditions, the Manchus preferred to offer peace and conclude a "fraternal alliance" with Korea. the meaning of which was to demand that she refuse to support China.

Led by Emperor Taizong himself, the 100,000-strong Manchu army entered Korea at the end of 1636. Wang and his entourage sent their families and property to Kan-hwado, but did not manage to escape there themselves. The Manchu cavalry cut off all roads, and the van and his retinue took refuge in the small mountain fortress Namkhan south of Seoul. For more than a month and a half, its defenders held the defense without receiving reinforcements and suffering from a lack of food. But when the Manchus crossed to Kanghwa and captured the families of the Korean nobility, Wang decided to surrender. The Manchus imposed humiliating peace conditions on him: Korea recognized its vassal dependence on the Qing empire, agreed to give hostages, pay tribute, etc.

In Korea, they did not immediately come to terms with surrender: in some places there were guerrilla attacks on the Manchus, unsuccessful attempts were made to secretly enlist the support of the Ming dynasty in order to continue the struggle. In order to appease the country, the Manchu rulers reduced the pressure on it (in 1645 they reduced the amount of tribute, abolished the hostage system). Gradually, relations of nominal vassalage were established.

However, the Manchus were still striving to assert their supremacy over Korea. After their troops left the country under the onslaught of partisan detachments, they raided the border regions of Korea and plundered the population. They demanded from Korea the supplies of ships and food necessary for the war with China, and the dispatch of sailors. All this aroused indignation in Korea and contributed to the growth of anti-Manchu sentiments, which were shared by the ruling circles. When the Qing empire was proclaimed and the Manchu ambassadors arrived in Korea with the notification of this and the demand for vassal dependence, the wang refused even to accept them. Thus, a step was taken towards a rupture, although Korea was poorly prepared for an inevitable war.

Korea is a country with a rich history, distinctive culture and a single ethnic population - until the second half of the 19th century. remained a feudal country, where the basis of the rule of feudal lords was their ownership of land. Almost all the land was at the disposal of the class of large landowners - the court nobility, government officials and landowners. The exploitation of the peasants by the feudal lords was carried out both by each individual and by the whole class in the person of the state. State peasants paid a land tax-rent, whether they carried feudal duties.

The domination of the class of feudal lords was consolidated by the estate system: the class of landowners was a privileged class of nobles (yangban), from which state officials were appointed; the bulk of the peasants formed the tax-paying class of prostblyudin (yangin). The most inferior ("vile") class belonged to state and private serfs (nobi), state artisans.

The country was ruled by a hierarchy of officials, at the top of which was the king (van). The official Confucian ideology represented Wang as the “father of the people,” and he should be worshiped as a deity. He ruled the country with the help of the State Council and government departments. Local administration included governors of eight provinces and subordinate governors of districts, counties and townships. The lowest administrative unit was the village, the population of which was tied by mutual responsibility in bearing feudal responsibilities.

By the middle of the 17th century. Korea recovered from the destruction caused by the invasions of the Japanese (in the 16th century) and Manchu (20-30s of the 17th century) invaders. During the XVII-XVIII centuries. there was a noticeable development of productive forces: the cultivated areas were expanded, irrigation facilities were restored, new agricultural crops were introduced (pepper, pumpkin, tomato, sweet potato), and agricultural techniques were introduced. Crops such as tobacco and wife were destined for sale.

The development of productive forces in industry was expressed in the fact that the importance of state craft fell and the craft of free craftsmen appeared in the city and in the countryside. With the development of peasant crafts, there was a specialization of entire regions, focused on the production of certain products.

The development of agriculture and crafts led to the emergence of local markets and large trading centers in cities (Seoul, Kaesong, Pyongyang, Daegu), to the growth of trading corporations that captured not only internal but even foreign trade (with China and Japan ). Merchant capital also invaded production (for example, gold mines with the use of hired labor).

The further development of the country's productive forces was constrained by the existing political system, especially by the predatory robbery of the feudal lords, numerous state prohibitions and the regulation of social thought. Leading thinkers and scholars (Liu Hyungwon, Lee Ik, Hong Daeyeon, Park Chiwon and others) representing the movement for real sciences (sirhak) criticized the scholasticism of official Confucianism in their works, advocated for the dissemination of knowledge with practical significance (they included both natural and social sciences - geography, history, native language and literature), spoke out for reforms in public life - for allotting land to peasants, eliminating class inequality, eradicating arbitrariness and cruelty of officials, parasitism of nobles , improvement of farming methods, development of industry and trade, improvement of vehicles. These ideas defined important features of the Korean literature of the 17th-17th centuries.

In the 19th century, the economic decline due to the intensified exploitation of the feudal lords led to an aggravation of the struggle of the peasants, who rose up in revolts. The largest uprising at the beginning of the century was the uprising of the peasants of Northwest Korea under the leadership of Hong Gyeongne in 1811-1812. The unrest of the peasants especially intensified in the second half of the 19th century. In 1862 alone, there were 21 peasant uprisings with the participation of tens of thousands of people. The rebels smashed local administrations, took away the property of officials and landowners. The spontaneity and fragmentation of the speeches allowed the authorities to suppress them one by one. At this time, attempts were made in the country for a religious reformation to create a system of opposition religion. So, at the end of the 50s, a religious sect of "Eastern teaching" (tonhak) arose, opposing itself to official Confucianism and Western Christianity. The sect preached the equality of people (before God) and the value of human life.

With the development of capitalism in the West and the intensified search for new markets and sources of raw materials, more and more foreign ships began to appear off the coast of Korea, seeking to open its ports, and the secret activities of Adistian missionaries, paving the way for the colonialists, intensified. After the establishment of the Korean bishopric was announced in 1831, French Catholic missionaries secretly began to infiltrate the country (via China). Government persecution of Korean Christians and repression of missionaries became the pretext for sending (in 1846 and 1847) French warships to Korea. The danger of new invasions increased in the 50-60s of the 19th century, when the capitalist powers (imposing enslaving treaties on China and Japan) began expansion into the countries of the Far East.

Continuing the policy of isolation from the outside world, the Taewongong government tried to strengthen the central government with reforms; the colonial expeditions of France and the United States ended in failure. Despite the dispatch of significant forces - seven French warships (in 1866) and five warships and the US Expeditionary Force (in 1871), these powers never managed to get in touch with the Korean government.

In 1874, the power in Korea passed to the representatives of the Ming clan. To preserve the existing system and its dominant position, the new government found it more acceptable to yield to pressure from foreign states, and therefore Japan, after a provoked military demonstration, succeeded in imposing on Korea in 1876 a "treaty of peace and friendship" - the first among subsequent unequal agreements. concluded by the Korean government with the United States (in 1882), England and Germany (in 1883), tsarist Russia and other powers. Under these agreements, Korean ports (first Pu-san, Incheon and Wonsan) were opened for free settlement and business activities of foreigners who received various privileges (import of goods duty-free or at preferential tariffs, the right of extraterritoriality with consular jurisdiction, etc. .).

The conclusion of unequal treaties aggravated the crisis of the feudal system, intensified political conflicts and the anti-feudal struggle of the peasants, which began to acquire a national liberation character. The complexity of the external and internal political situation in Korea was taken advantage of by China and Japan, who brought their troops into it. The Japanese-Chinese contradictions generated by these events were settled by the treaty in Tianjin (1885), according to which both sides pledged to simultaneously withdraw their troops from Korea and not send their military instructors there. However, the possibility of further intervention was discussed - if there were "riots" in Korea.

After the conclusion of unequal agreements, Korea very soon turned into a sales market and a source of raw materials for the capitalist states. Foreign cotton fabrics were imported into the country, and rice, beans and other agricultural products were exported (which accounted for 90% of official exports). The export of gold did not lend itself to accounting (it was smuggled out). Japan seized most of Korea's foreign trade, shipping, and loans into its own hands. The Chinese government, claiming "sovereignty" in Korea, facilitated the penetration of its merchants into Korea, who (like the Japanese) sold foreign-made goods, mainly English.

England supported China's claims, the United States encouraged Japan's aggressiveness, hoping to use it against England, China and Russia. At the same time, American missionaries and industrialists tried to "create conditions" for the spread of American political and economic influence in Korea. This is how the struggle of the capitalist powers for Korea began.

Meanwhile, the internal political situation of Korea after the "opening" was characterized by the growing exacerbation of social contradictions caused by the intensification of feudal exploitation. The government sought to compensate for the increased expenditures (on internal political transformations, on the payment of indemnities to Japan after the events of 1882 and 1884) by increasing taxes. The increase in taxes, the sale of government posts, the general corruption of officials, together with the exploitation of landlords, foreign buyers and usurers, made the life of the peasants unbearable.

Separate peasant revolts merged into the Great Cross-Yang War. The proclamations of the rebels called "to put to death the greedy and cruel officials, to expel from the country the bandit gangs of foreign oppressors." The peasant war took on such a scale that the government was forced to offer the insurgents a truce and recognized the peasants' demands as just, up to the abolition of their serfdom and equal distribution of land. But when (in accordance with the armistice agreement) the peasant army retreated, the government turned to China for military assistance to suppress the uprising. With the arrival of Chinese troops in Korea, Japan sent troops there, even more numerous, and began military operations against China. The peasant army tried to undertake a liberation campaign against Seoul, but was defeated. The defeat of the peasant army put Korea in front of a deep national crisis - the threat of becoming a Japanese colony, since after recognizing its "independence from China" under the Shimonoseki Treaty of 1895, Japan began to dictate "reforms" to the Korean government to ensure its dominance In Korea. And only the continued popular resistance, as well as the contradictions between the imperialist powers, prevented the immediate absorption of Korea by the Japanese invaders.

Subsequently, with the support of Britain (the treaty on the Anglo-Japanese alliance, 1902) and the United States, Japan in 1904 unleashed a war against Russia, which prevented the seizure of Korea. Contrary to the declared neutrality of Korea, Japanese troops occupied its territory, and "advisers" nominated by Japan controlled the activities of the Korean government. After the defeat in the war, Darism under the Treaty of Portsmouth recognized "the dominance of Japan's political, military and economic interests in Korea", Japan's freedom to take "such measures of leadership, control and patronage" as it deems necessary.

Having secured the same recognition from England and the United States, Japan unimpeded in November 1905 imposed a protectorate treaty on the Korean government, which deprived Korea of ​​relations with foreign states and documented control over the activities of its government on the part of Japan.

The national humiliation caused by the establishment of the protectorate, as well as the general intensification of feudal and capitalist oppression, caused a new upsurge in the national liberation movement of the Korean people after 1905. It coincided with a new era when “the awakening to political life of the Asian peoples received a special impetus from the Russian-Japanese war and from the Russian revolution. "

The news of the establishment of a protectorate (1905) and the conclusion of a treaty in 1907 provoked an uprising of soldiers and the population in the Korean capital, which, however, were quickly suppressed by Japanese troops. However, armed resistance continued. In all provinces, partisan detachments ("armies of justice") were created from peasants, soldiers of the dispersed Korean army and representatives of other strata of the population. As a rule, they were headed by patriotic noblemen (Confucian scholars).

Along with the armed struggle of the masses, continuing the tradition of peasant revolts, new in the national liberation movement of this period was the emergence of the ideology of bourgeois nationalism in Korea, which was promoted by the advanced intelligentsia (from the nobility), which launched a cultural and educational movement ... The enlighteners (Chan Jiyon, Park Eunsik, Shin Chaeho, Chu Sigyon, etc.) saw the way out of the national crisis in the development of national industry and modern education, mastering the achievements of foreign science and technology, therefore, their primary task at this stage considered the awakening of the people of national self-consciousness. These ideas were disseminated through the national press, especially the publications of educational societies and private schools of the modern type created by the educators. Educators made the first attempts to create political organizations in Korea. For example, "Taehan Chaganghwe" was created with the task of achieving a constitutional monarchy. One day, the weakness of the national bourgeoisie as a class that was

closely linked with feudal forces and foreign capital, the fragmentation of its class bourgeois-nationalist organizations (educational in form) did not allow it to lead the struggle of the masses.

In 1910, the Japanese imperialists annexed Korea and turned it into their colony, where they established a military-terrorist ("saber") regime.

The system of economic exploitation, political pressure and national humiliation of the Korean people established by the colonialists made the emergence of a national liberation struggle inevitable.

The domination of Japanese imperialism in Korea was based on the unlimited power of the military, on military and police terror. Koreans were banned from any public activity (except for religious). The use of their native language and the study of their history were also prohibited (many books were burned).

The land census (1910-1918) legalized the private property of landowners, and turned hundreds of thousands of peasants into landless tenants, exploited by Japanese and Korean landowners. The Japanese monopolies exploited the peasants by semi-feudal methods. The landlords were the mainstay of the colonial regime and provided Japan with cheap food.

The largest Japanese concerns captured all the commanding heights in the economy - railways, mining, and other industries and trade. In order to suppress the competition of Korean entrepreneurs, their activities were artificially restrained by the Joint Stock Company Law (1910).

In an atmosphere of increasingly aggravated national and social contradictions, the news of the victory of the October Socialist Revolution in Russia was perceived in Korea as a call for an uprising against the hated order. Korea's neighborhood with the Russian Far East, the participation of Korean workers (including partisans - fighters for the independence of Korea) together with the Russians in the struggle of the Soviet Republic against the imperialist interventionists and White Guards contributed to the rapid spread of truthful news about the Russian revolution ... In an atmosphere of general popular indignation, even the timid appeal of moderate nationalists - representatives of the Chongdogyo (Faith of the Heavenly Way) society and other religious organizations - triggered a powerful explosion in the popular movement. March 1, 1919 under the slogan "Long live the independence of Korea!" demonstrations took place in Seoul, Pyongyang and many other cities and towns in Korea. In Seoul, 300 thousand people took to the streets - workers and peasants, office workers and merchants, artisans and entrepreneurs, student youth. In the three months after March 1, 211 (out of 218) counties in Korea have seen thousands of demonstrations and armed demonstrations, in which more than 2 million people took part.

Human. The anti-Japanese movement of Koreans also developed in the Russian Primorye, Manchuria, in Japan itself and in other countries.

After the capitulation of the nationalist leaders, the demonstrations of the masses took place spontaneously, which made it easier for the Japanese militarists to disperse the demonstrations.

Despite. to defeat, the March movement in Korea was of great historical significance. First of all, it showed that the Korean people, together with other peoples of the oppressed countries, had entered the common front of the struggle against the imperialist and colonial system. It also served as a serious lesson for the participants in the movement in their struggle for the national liberation of Korea, revealed the inability of the ideologists of the nationalist bourgeoisie to take revolutionary action, their inability to lead the masses, as well as their inclination to agree with the imperialists. It also showed that the working class, as the most consistent fighter for the national and social emancipation of the people, should become the leading force of the national liberation movement. Even the insignificant concessions of the Japanese imperialists after the March events (the abolition of restrictions on the entrepreneurial activity of the bourgeoisie, the promise to it of political freedoms and self-government) were greeted with enthusiasm by the Korean bourgeoisie, which was adapting to the colonial order. It is not the body of national liberation. , but only reforms that would expand its exploitative capabilities, therefore, for the further destinies of the liberation movement, the growth in the number and organization of the working class, called by history to become the hegemon in the national struggle to overthrow the colonial yoke, was of great importance.

The size of the working class as capital investment in the economy increased steadily - by 1929 the industrial proletariat had already numbered 100 thousand people, and the number of hired labor as a whole - about 1 million. True, due to underdevelopment capitalism and the general economic backwardness of the country, the working class was still weak, scattered among small enterprises, closely linked with the countryside and had no experience in the struggle against capitalist exploitation. That is why the first workers' organizations could be decisively influenced by the reformist-minded petty-bourgeois intelligentsia.

The most important moment in the development of the workers' and liberation movement in Korea in the early 1920s was the penetration and dissemination of the ideas of Marxism-Leninism, the emergence of the first illegal Marxist circles and communist groups among the advanced workers and intelligentsia, torture of creating mass organizations of workers and their leadership.

In 1925, the Communist Party of Korea was created, which became a section of the Comintern. In 1926, for the first time, she organized a mass demonstration under the slogan of the struggle for national independence. Along with participation in mass organizations of workers and peasants, it made an attempt to form a united front of patriotic forces, but failed to provide a truly revolutionary leadership of the national liberation movement on the basis of Marxist strategy and tactics. The Korean Communist Party ceased to exist (it was disbanded). The Kbreyan communists were faced with the task of reviving the Communist Party as a militant Marxist-Leninist party of a new type: monolithic and disciplined, capable of leading the struggle of the masses in the coming anti-imperialist and anti-feudal revolution.

In the late 1920s and early 1930s, the internal political situation in Korea became complicated again. The Japanese imperialists sought to find a way out for their economy from the world economic crisis of 1929-1933. and embarked on the path of military aggression. On the territory of Korea and Manchuria, Japan began to prepare an economic and military foothold for an attack on neighboring countries. Therefore, in ten years (after 1931), the investments of the Japanese monopolies in Korea increased 2.5 times. During the Second World War, the industry of Korea provided all the materials and products necessary for Japan to Uz.

Despite the ugly colonial nature of the Korean economy, the changes in industry that have taken place have contributed to the growth of the industrial proletariat. By 1945, there were 1 million industrial, construction and transport workers in Korea (and the total number of hired workers was 2 million). The numerical growth was accompanied by a qualitative change in the role of the working class in the liberation movement. More than a thousand strikes in the first half of the 1930s (many of which escalated into armed clashes with the authorities) speak of the vanguard role of the working class in the struggle against Japanese imperialism.

The increased role of the working class and its leadership from the side of communist organizations determined the possibility of a transition to active forms of the national liberation struggle. In the Wangqing region, the communist Kim Il Sung in 1932 created a detachment, which became the nucleus of the future People's Revolutionary Army, which also included other partisan detachments (Choi Yonggen, Kim Chhaka, etc.). The armed struggle of the partisans was based on the growing workers 'and peasants' movement.

When, at the call of the 7th Congress of the Comintern, the revolutionary and progressive forces of the world created a united front against fascism and reaction, the Korean communists in 1936 founded the Society for the Revival of the Fatherland (Choguk Kwanbok Hwe) on the territory of Manchuria, the prototype of the future - a national united front. His program set the task of overthrowing Japanese colonial rule and the revival of Korea as an independent democratic state. The achievement of this goal was associated with the implementation of political, socio-economic and cultural transformations in the interests of the masses, primarily such as the confiscation of all property of the Japanese imperialists and traitors to the Korean people, the implementation of democratic freedoms and a radical improvement in working conditions and life of workers and peasants.

The guerrilla raids in the northern regions of Korea and their mass political and propaganda work undermined the positions of Japanese imperialism in the country. In a difficult and unequal struggle against the forces of Japanese imperialism, the Korean people strove to contribute to Japan's defeat in a predatory war. This struggle strengthened the patriotic and democratic forces led by the working class.

During the Second World War, the activity of the reactionary Korean emigration to the United States, in the Kuomintang regions of China, which hoped with the support of foreign imperialists to come to power in postwar Korea, also revived.

The defeat of Japanese imperialism, in which the Soviet Army played a decisive role, brought the Korean people long-awaited liberation. The liberation of Korea from Japanese colonial rule opened the possibility of its revival as a single, independent, democratic state, opened a new page in the history of the Korean people's struggle for national independence and social progress.

However, in the approach to solving the problem of the future development of Korea, two diametrically opposite tendencies were revealed, representing two different social systems of the modern world after the Second World War.

If the Soviet Union and other socialist countries, together with the patriotic progressive forces of the Korean people, consistently fought for the revival of Korea as a single, truly independent, democratic state, where the Korean people should become the master, freely choosing the path of social progress, then the United States America and other imperialist states, jointly with the forces of Korean reaction, took a course to ensure the imperialist dominance of the United States in Korea or at least part of its territory, so the Korean land became the arena of a devastating war, and the Korean nation is still divided. If the Soviet Army in its zone of military responsibility (north of the temporary demarcation line along the 38th parallel) took all measures to provide the Korean people with the opportunity to revive Korea as an independent democratic state, then the American occupation the troops sought to suppress the democratic forces in South Korea, to rally the forces of reaction. In pursuit of these goals, American diplomacy even sought to consolidate them in international agreements with the allied powers.

During the Moscow meeting of the ministers of foreign affairs of the USSR, the USA and Great Britain (December 1945), the American delegation came up with a proposal for trusteeship, which envisaged the establishment for a long term (up to ten years) of a foreign ("allied") administration headed by the American representative. At the insistence of the Soviet Union, an agreed decision was made that provided for the restoration of Korea as an independent democratic state and the creation of an all-Korean Provisional Democratic Government, the formation of which (from representatives of both parts of Korea) was to be assisted by a joint Soviet-American commission ... This committee, with the participation of the Provisional Government, democratic parties and public organizations, was supposed to develop measures to promote the political, economic and social progress of the Korean people, the development of democratic self-government and the establishment of the state independence of Korea.

Under the prevailing conditions, this decision opened the only real way to restore Korea as a single, independent, democratic state, but this did not suit the American imperialists, who were thinking of establishing their dominance in Korea, therefore the American military command, in every possible way inciting reactionary forces, led the fight against the agreed decisions of the Moscow conference. After the resumption of the work of the joint commission in 1947, the American side persistently tried to remove the democratic forces from participation in the future government of Korea in order to impose a regime obedient to the US imperialists on Korea. When this failed, the United States brought (in violation of the Moscow Agreement and the UN Charter) the Korean issue for consideration by the UN General Assembly, clearly counting on the votes of the states dependent on the United States to achieve a decision that it pleases.

Hiding behind the illegal decision of the 2nd session of the General Assembly (on holding elections under the supervision of the UN Commission), the American imperialists, despite the protests of the representatives of the Korean people, on May 10, 1948 staged "free" elections in South Korea and founded the "Republic of Korea "- the dictatorship of the landlords and the big bourgeoisie associated with foreign imperialism.

Representatives of the patriotic parties and democratic public organizations of the North and South, who gathered to take urgent measures for national salvation, decided to recognize the separate elections as illegal and establish a truly democratic people's government through truly free elections in both parts of Korea. In August 1948, democratic elections to the Supreme People's Assembly of Korea were held - 212 deputies from the North and 360 from the South (deputies from the South were elected at an electoral conference), representing the sublinio democratic forces of the people. On September 9, 1948, the session of the Supreme People's Assembly of Korea proclaimed the creation of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and adopted a constitution that consolidated the people's gains in the democratic construction of North Korea and opened up the prospect of the struggle for a single democratic state. The constitution confirmed the people's democratic character of the social and state system of the DPRK. The session of the VNSC approved the cabinet of ministers of the DPRK, headed by the leader of the Labor Party, Kim Il Sung. In response to the appeal of the VNSC, the Soviet Union withdrew its troops from North Korea, despite the fact that American troops remained in the South. Thus, an independent state of the working people of Korea entered the world arena, choosing the path of socialist development and taking a course towards the peaceful reunification of their homeland.

South Korea was turning into a neo-colonialist appendage of the United States, into a military-strategic base of American imperialism in the Far East. Immediately after the proclamation of the "Republic of Korea", the dominant position of the United States was consolidated by a series of enslaving agreements. Military agreements legitimized the American occupation of South Korea and placed all its military formations under American control. Economic agreements put the South Korean economy under the rule of American monopolies. The regime created in the South served not only to suppress the democratic national liberation movement of the masses - the American imperialists pushed it into direct military adventures against the DPRK in order to eliminate the revolutionary gains of the Korean people under the guise of “uniting” the country. The American imperialists took part in the development of plans for an attack on the DPRK and the elimination of the people's democratic system in the North.

It is no coincidence that after J.F.Dal-lesa's visit to South Korea on June 25, 1950, a war broke out in Korea, which was prepared by American imperialism not only to fight the DPRK, but also to fight the growing forces of world socialism and national -the liberation movement. To deceive the peoples of the world, the American imperialists, turning to direct acts of aggression, decided to cover it with the UN flag and present it as "collective action" against "aggression" allegedly committed from North Korea. It was in this spirit that they managed to push through the Security Council (in the absence of a representative of the USSR) resolutions on June 27 and July 7, 1950, but the aggressors, even hiding behind the UN flag, could neither hide their essence, nor escape from inevitable defeat in an unjust war.

The defeat of the US-trained puppet army forced them and their "allies" to take a direct part in the war against the Korean people. The American interventionists landed large forces in the Incheon area, cut off the troops of the Korean People's Army in the South, and crossed the 38th parallel, captured Pyongyang and other important centers of the DPRK. In this difficult time, the Korean people in their just war against the imperialist invaders relied not only on moral and political support, but also on the enormous material and military assistance of the Soviet Union and other socialist countries. Since the American aggression was also directed against the PRC, in October 1950, Chinese volunteers entered the battle on the side of the DPRK. Soviet airmen, fulfilling their international duty, covered North-East China and the east coast of China from American air raids.

As a result, a year after the outbreak of hostilities, the invaders' troops were located approximately in the same place (in the region of the 38th parallel), where they began the aggression. The people's democratic system of the DPRK, based on the support of the socialist countries, has withstood the difficult ordeals of the war. The organizers of the aggression and intervention suffered not only a moral and political, but also a military defeat.

The United States was forced to agree with the peace initiative of the Soviet Union, which, as a first step towards a peaceful settlement of the Korean question, called on the belligerent countries (in June 1951) to begin negotiations on a ceasefire and to conclude a truce with a mutual withdrawal of troops from the 38th parallel. cherished. On July 27, 1953, in Panmunjom (district of Kaesong), an agreement was signed on a ceasefire in Korea with a mutual withdrawal of troops from both sides for the neutral zone formed along the recent front line, and on the settlement of the issue at an international conference about the unification of Korea by peaceful means.

The victory of the Korean people, who defended their revolutionary gains in the heroic struggle against the imperialist aggressors, became possible thanks to the powerful support of the Soviet Union and other socialist countries, as well as the solidarity of the progressive and peace-loving forces of the whole world. It was a victory for the forces of peace and socialism.

As a result of the military destruction in 1953, the gross industrial production decreased by 40% compared to the pre-war 1949 (8,700 industrial enterprises were destroyed, the heavy industry sectors were especially seriously affected), grain production was 88% of the 1949 level and the production of industrial crops and livestock products fell even more. Transport and communications were severely damaged.

The general line of post-war economic construction outlined by the Labor Party provided for the planned restoration and advancement of the national economy on the basis of the complete victory of socialist production relations and the creation of the material and technical basis of socialism.

The construction of the socialist economy went through several stages. After the restoration of the productive forces destroyed by the war, conditions were prepared for socialist industrialization, and then socialist industrialization and technical reconstruction of all sectors of the national economy were carried out, the material and technical base of socialist society was created.

With the implementation of the three-year plan for the restoration and development of the national economy (1954-1956), not only was the pre-war level of the national economy achieved, but also the basis for the subsequent socialist industrialization of the country was created. Five-year plan 1957-1961 was aimed at creating the foundation of socialist industrialization and completing the socialist transformation in agriculture. The five-year plan for all the main indicators was completed ahead of schedule - in 1960. The volume of industrial production in comparison with 1944 increased by 7.7 times. Such high rates were only possible thanks to the help of the countries of the socialist system. All socialist countries led by the Soviet Union contributed to the creation of the industrial base of the DPRK. At the expense of gratuitous assistance, 50 of the largest enterprises were restored or built, which formed the basis of the industrial power of the DPRK (enterprises of ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, a chemical fertilizer plant, power plants, a textile mill, etc.). They provided 40% of the production of electricity, more than half of cast iron and coke, 2/3 of cotton fabrics, etc. The Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance with the USSR (July 1961) expanded the possibilities of cooperation between the two countries and strengthened security of the DPRK. The agreements on economic and scientific-technical cooperation concluded in the development of the treaty serve the further development of the socialist society in the DPRK.

The next stage of expanded socialist construction was associated with the seven-year plan (1961-1967), adopted at the IV Congress of the Workers' Party of Korea (September 1961). The fulfillment of the tasks of the seven-year plan was extended by ten years in connection with the deployment, simultaneously with the economic, of defensive construction, which required large material and labor costs.

The results of the implementation of the seven-year plan were summed up at the 5th Congress of the Workers' Party of Korea (November 1970). As noted in the Report of the Central Committee of the WPK, the task of socialist industrialization of the country was accomplished. 1960-1970 industrial production increased 3.3 times. New, modern machines were produced, technical reconstruction of agriculture and other sectors of the economy was carried out. The implementation of irrigation, electrification, mechanization and chemicalization raised the production of grain to 5.4 million tons per year.

The six-year plan for the development of the national economy of the DPRK (1971-1976) ensured the further consolidation of the successes of socialist industrialization and the strengthening of the material and technical base of socialism. By 1976, gross industrial production had grown 2.5 times (compared to 1970) with an average annual growth of 16.3%. At the same time, while ensuring high rates of development, difficulties arose associated with the consequences of drought, with the energy supply of the national economy, with the receipt of foreign currency, therefore, by the decision of the Central Committee of the TPK, 1977 was declared the year of regulation of the national economic proportions (overcoming tensions in certain industries) to ensure further planned development of the entire economy. In December 1977, the Supreme People's Assembly of Korea adopted a law on a new perspective plan for the development of the national economy for 1978-1984, which provides for an increase in industrial production by 2.2 times. The VI Congress of the WPK (October 1980) summed up the results of the fulfillment of the plan in the first years and outlined the prospects for the recovery of the national economy in the 80s.

With the economic achievements of socialism, the political foundation of the DPRK was consolidated. The socio-economic and political changes that occurred as a result of socialist construction were enshrined in the new socialist constitution of the DPRK (adopted by the VNSK in December 1972), which declared the DPRK a socialist state of the dictatorship of the proletariat. As the main directions of the further development of the DPRK, the constitution outlined the struggle for the complete victory of socialism, the peaceful, independent, without external interference, the unification of the country and the achievement of national independence on a national scale.

The Democratic People's Republic of Korea is waging a successive struggle for the independent peaceful reunification of the divided homeland, but this course runs up against the counter-actions of American imperialism and the reactionary regime of South Korea.

The entire post-war (since 1953) development of South Korea is characterized by the expansion of the positions of imperialist neo-colonialism and the continuous crisis of the reactionary regime, which reflects the aggravating contradictions between the domination of foreign (primarily American and Japanese) imperialism and national interests people of South Korea.

The main factor determining the position of South Korea since the conclusion of the armistice is its economic and military-political dependence on American imperialism, which retains its troops in South Korea and strives to continue to hold it as a base for the implementation of its global strategy.

With the conclusion in 1953 of the American-South Korean treaty "on mutual security" South Korea was tied to the war machine of American imperialism. The purpose of militarizing South Korea and subordinating it to US domination was served by multibillion-dollar "aid" throughout the period after 1945. The associated burden of military spending hindered the development of the South Korean economy. People's dissatisfaction with the war policy pursued by the Liberal Party of Rhee Seungman sharply increased. The falsification of the presidential elections on March 15, 1960 served as a signal for an explosion of popular indignation. Starting in Masan, the uprising spread to Seoul and other cities. In Seoul, demonstrators laid siege to the presidential palace and forced Lee Seungman and the Liberal Party government to resign. However, under the conditions of the American occupation and in the absence of revolutionary leadership of the masses, the popular uprising could not lead to the overthrow of the power of the reactionary bourgeoisie and landowners. The bourgeois Democratic Party that came to power, focusing on the United States, was unable to solve a single problem related to vital interests.

On May 16, 1961, the Democratic Party government was overthrown during a military coup by General Park Chung-hee's clique. Under the guise of combating the decay of previous regimes and the "communist danger", Park Chung Hee's military clique banned the activities of political parties and unleashed repression against patriotic and democratic forces. Having completed their pogrom tasks, the military announced the transition to civilian rule, the resumption of the parliamentary system with the participation of political parties. However, this did not change the dictatorial essence of the regime. In the elections at the end of 1963, the leader of the military junta, General Park Chung Hee, who represented the Republican Democratic Party he created, became the president of South Korea. The main opposition New Democratic Party was unable to successfully oppose the ruling big business party.

The military-bureaucratic dictatorship of Park Chung Hee was a political form of the neo-colonialist domination of foreign monopoly capital in alliance with the large local bourgeoisie, and the dictatorial government provided them with huge profits due to the cruel exploitation of the working masses.

To bring the country out of a severe economic crisis, the dictatorial regime adopted the so-called export model of economic development, in which the widespread attraction of foreign capital should ensure the production of products for foreign markets and profits for foreign creditors, the local bourgeoisie and the ruling bureaucracy. The working class was denied the right to strike and take collective action against entrepreneurs.

Despite the leap in the level of industrial development of South Korea in the 60-70s, the existing socio-economic and political system was torn apart by deep contradictions. The entire economy was made dependent on external conditions. By the end of 1973, 40% of external financial receipts were American and 32% - Japanese (Japanese capital investment rose sharply after the separate normalization of relations in 1965).

To suppress the growing discontent of the people, the Park Chung Hee clique went on to toughen the repression, to completely eliminate the parliamentary opposition and establish unlimited power of the dictator (according to the 1972 constitution, the possibility of a lifetime presidency of Park Chung Hee was opened), resorted to a broad nationalist and anti-communist deme gogy.

In 1979, Park Chung Hee was assassinated. The political crisis after the assassination of Park Chung-hea, accompanied by numerous workers' demonstrations, student demonstrations and the intensification of the bourgeois opposition, did not lead, however, to the elimination of the domination of foreign capital, or to the elimination of the military-bureaucratic power that supported it. This was explained not only by the general weakness of the democratic movement (in which different class interests were mixed), but also by the fetters of economic, political and military dependence of South Korea on the US imperialists, which maintain troops on its territory (40 thousand). equipped with the most modern weapons.

The most organized force was the South Korean army, fed and controlled by the Americans, which suppressed popular resistance and, with the hands of a new dictator, Chon Duhwan (who received American support), restored the regime of a military-bureaucratic dictatorship. The people of South Korea face a difficult struggle.

GWANGJON / WAN SO / 4 KING KORYO

Gwangjong / Wang So / Gwangjong (광종 光宗) (925 - 975) was the fourth emperor of the Goryeo Dynasty, whose kings ruled from the unification of the nation in 936 to the establishment of the new Joseon Dynasty in 1392.

According to some reports, Gwangjong was born not in 925, but in 920.

Goryeo dynasty

The first ruler of Goryeo Wang Gong was careful enough to win over the Silla aristocracy. He gave the last king of this state an important post in his government, and also married a woman from the royal family of Silla in order to legitimize his rule. Wang Gong prepared the Ten Precepts for his successors so that they would continue to strengthen the state after him and strengthen their protection from their neighbors to the north. In these Ten Prescriptions, Wang Gong warned descendants that although the power of the sovereign rests on the clans, this happens only in wartime, and in peacetime it is worth weakening the influence of clans on the ground. But at the same time, he called for a cautious policy so as not to provoke an internal conflict and attempts to overthrow the government.

When Wang Gong died in 943, he received the posthumous title of King Taejo ("Great Progenitor"). He was succeeded by his son Hejong Hyejong (혜종; 惠 宗; 943-945, second emperor), and then his second son, Jeongjong Jeongjong (정종; 定 宗; 945-949, third emperor). And in 949, Gwangjong / Wang So, the third son, took the throne.

The beginning of the reign

When Wang So, Wang Gong's third son, came to the throne in 949, he found that his position was very unstable.

His father fought alongside Kun Ye when he rebelled against Queen Silla, and then conquered Parhe, Baekje, and Hupekje. The clan leaders who supported Wang Gong considered themselves almost gods in their land, but instead of obeying the king, they competed among themselves for influence over the government, and through the government - over the king. The generals who once helped Wang Gong to ascend the throne and create Goryeo presided over his successors, competing for the throne.

Gwangjon's predecessor, King Jeongjon, tried unsuccessfully to reduce the power of the inner circle in the government, but without the support of the elite, he was unable to significantly strengthen the throne. I could not even move the capital to Pyongyang.

Wang So realized that his first priority should be to build a strong and stable government. Recognizing the great similarities between his position and that of Taizong Tang (626 - 649), who ascended the Chinese throne after helping his father to found the Tang Dynasty, Wang So conducted a thorough study of the Taizong Rule Book for Emperors (Laws for a Ruler, Di Fan). From this book, he acquired many ideas on how to create a stable government.

One of the first challenges that Wang So faced was to eliminate or reduce the strength of his rivals, many of whom he imprisoned, exiled or executed. He passed a number of laws aimed at centralizing government. One of them, adopted in 956, was about freeing slaves (during conflicts between various warring clans, many of the captured people were transferred to the rank of nobi, and they were forced to work as slaves for their invaders. Wang So restored those who were unjustly deposed , to commoners, thereby the king weakened the power of estates and increased tax revenues (slaves should not pay, and peasants - yes)).

In 958, Wang So initiated the civil service examination system so that the selection of government officials (노비 안검 법; 奴婢 按 檢 法) came from among the most talented and intelligent candidates, regardless of social status or background. Previously, government appointments were made based on social status, family ties, and location rather than merit, allowing many incompetent people to take leadership positions and impose a class system. The principle of examinations for civil service thereafter continued to be used for the next 900 years until 1894.

Gwangjong then chose the Korean era name, Chunphun (motto), proclaimed himself emperor, sovereign and independent from any other country. This marked the end of a dependent relationship with China. Wang Seo's successors were also known as Emperors.

Choi Seungno (최승로; 崔 承 老), a historian who served as prime minister under the first six kings of Goryeo, including King Taejo, Wang Seo's father, wrote a book criticizing Gwangjong for pushing Goryeo into debt by being too obsessed Buddhist activities, rituals and community projects. He stated that the first eight years of Gwangjong's rule were peaceful because he ruled wisely and did not impose harsh punishments, but after that he became a tyrant, spent money lavishly, tolerated corruption and punished anyone who opposed his centralized policies.

At the end of his life, Gwangjong began building numerous Buddhist temples. Scientists suggest that perhaps he repented of the murder of all those influential people who were not on his side, and wished to calm the popular outrage that arose.

Heritage

Wang So ascended the throne only thirty years after his father, King Taejo, founded the Goryeo dynasty, at a time when royal clans were vying for political power and the throne was constantly under threat. Recognizing the need for a stable government, Wang So passed a series of laws to centralize state power and weaken the power of local feudal lords. Free the slaves and return them to their free status as a commoner. In 958, he instituted a system of examinations for the civil service, so that talented and intelligent people were in government positions. It has been in use for 940 years.

His son and grandson developed additional rules for governing the country, which allowed Goryeo to succeed under a strong centralized government, and also brought the country into conformity with the Confucian model of state.

Wang So fell ill with a serious illness in May 975 and died a few days later.

He was married twice:
Empress Deemok (대목 왕후), half-sister of Wang So
Lady Gyeongwagang, Wang So's niece

And had 5 children from Empress Deemok

After getting acquainted with South Korean cinema, or rather, with the drama "Moon Lovers - Scarlet Hearts: Goryeo", I was interested in the history of this country and the era of Goryeo in particular. I didn’t come across a suitable selection of films, so I created my own.

Considering that, according to the rules of the site, it will be impossible to supplement and edit the collection after it is sent for moderation, I will consider your comments (remarks or additions) as its continuation. This includes films and dramas that deal with the Goryeo era in one way or another.

As a small characteristic of the era - historical information.

Koryo- a state on the Korean Peninsula, which appeared after the fall of the Silla state in 935 (X century) and existed before the accession of the Joseon dynasty in 1392 (XIV century). Wang Gong is the first ruler of a united Korea, the founder of the Wang Dynasty and the Goryo State. The capital of the first Korean state was moved to the homeland of Van Gong in the city of Kaesong (now it is located on the territory of the DPRK).

The name "Goryeo" is an abbreviation for Goguryeo, one of the three early feudal states of Korea united by Silla in 668. The modern word "Korea" comes from "Koryo".

The unification of the later three Korean states in 936 was very important in Korean history. Despite the past, after the unification of Korea under the rule of a single ruler, Wang Gong, Koreans came to an agreement to live together as a single nation in a single state. Korea remained united for a millennium, until the division of the state into North and South Korea in 1948. Modern Koreans honor the memory of Wang Gong as the nation's unifier, especially during the current conflict.

Wang Gong had many wives, as he entered into arranged marriages with all the leaders of local clans in order to avoid civil strife. This brought Wang Gong a large number of supporters, but, at the same time, a huge number of close nobles (inner circle) and applicants for the throne. Van Gong had 29 wives and 35 official children. Society during the Goryeo era was relaxed and open. Compared to other eras, Goryeo was quite open in terms of the relationship between men and women. There were divorces and remarriages. Therefore, during this period there were many divorced people who often remarried, which is why they had many children. There were no laws such as those in Joseon (later era) that discriminated against children born from remarriage. For comparison, in Koryo, equality between men and women was more tangible, they had equal rights, and had equal status in the family. Women could be the head of the family, daughters and sons had equal opportunities to inherit property.

After his death, Wang Gong received the posthumous name Taejo - the Great Ancestor.

In order to strengthen the central government's power, the fourth king of the dynasty, Gwangjong, issued several decrees, including the emancipation of slaves in 958 and the decree on the compulsory examination for civil servants, which is still in force today. Gwangjong also declared himself emperor, independent of any other country.

By the 12th century, undermined by endless wars and peasant uprisings, Koryo began to weaken. A formidable and dangerous enemy was approaching - the Mongol hordes. However, it was not easy for them to conquer Koryo too. Koryo fell only after a fierce series of battles in 1231-1259.

The dependence of Koryo on the Mongols became an ordeal for the country for more than a century. The Mongols intervened in the affairs of the royal court and the administration of the country. Koryo princes were obliged to marry Mongol princesses. The country was forced to pay a huge tribute and send its artisans, girls for harems, to Mongolia.

The Korean people did not come to terms with the Mongol yoke, the conquerors were restless within the boundaries of Koryo. With the weakening of the Mongol Empire, the increase in uprisings in China in the XIV century. Mongols lost control of Korea.

In 1392, General Lee Song Gi overthrew the last Koryo monarch and brutally cracked down on his supporters. The Li dynasty was founded, which ruled Korea for more than five centuries, until its colonization by Japan in 1910. The state was renamed Joseon, and its capital was moved to today's Seoul.